The Near and Middle East (1828–1971 CE)

Empires in Decline, Nations in Transition, and Oil in Ascendancy

Geography & Environmental Context

The Near and Middle East includes three fixed subregions:

• The Near East — Israel, Egypt, Sudan, western Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Jordan, southwestern Turkey, and southwestern Cyprus.

• The Middle East — Iraq, Iran, Syria, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Qatar, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, eastern Jordan, eastern Saudi Arabia, and northern Oman.

• Southeast Arabia — southern Oman, eastern Yemen, and the island of Socotra.

This vast region links the Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Caspian Basin, bridging Africa, Europe, and Asia. It is dominated by deserts and highlands, punctuated by fertile river valleys (the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates) and strategic straits — the Suez Canal, the Bab el-Mandeb, and the Strait of Hormuz — that define global trade and geopolitics.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

Aridity remained the defining condition. The 19th century brought episodes of famine and epidemic following droughts in Egypt, Iran, and the Arabian Peninsula. Irrigation schemes and canal building, such as the Suez Canal (opened 1869) and the Assiut Barrage (1902), transformed riverine agriculture. Petroleum exploration and urban expansion in the 20th century accelerated desertification and water demand. Monsoon moisture sustained oases in Oman and Yemen, while seasonal Nile floods continued until the Aswan High Dam (1960–70) reshaped the river’s ecology.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Agrarian bases persisted in the Nile Valley, the Fertile Crescent, and the Iranian Plateau, producing wheat, cotton, dates, and fruits.

• Nomadic and pastoral tribes in Arabia, the Levant, and Sudan maintained camel and sheep herding, adapting to modern markets.

• Urbanization surged in Cairo, Istanbul, Tehran, Baghdad, Beirut, and Jeddah, intensified by European trade and oil wealth.

• Port cities—Aden, Basra, Kuwait City, Manama, and Doha—grew into nodes of global commerce.

Technology & Material Culture

European imperial penetration introduced telegraphs, railways (notably the Hejaz Railway, 1908), and modern weaponry. In the 20th century, oil extraction and refining brought pipelines, tankers, and industrial zones. Traditional crafts—carpets, calligraphy, metalwork, and ceramics—remained vital symbols of identity. Concrete architecture and Western education transformed cities, while mosques and bazaars continued as cultural anchors.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Trade routes: The Suez Canal reoriented world shipping; the Persian Gulf became an oil artery.

• Pilgrimage: The Hajj connected Muslims globally through Mecca and Medina.

• Migration: Rural–urban drift filled cities; labor migration later linked Yemenis, Egyptians, and Iranians to Gulf oil fields.

• Military corridors: The Near and Middle East served as theaters of imperial rivalries—British in the Gulf and Egypt, Russians in the Caucasus, Ottomans across Anatolia and Arabia.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Religion and reform: Islamic modernists such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh sought synthesis of faith and reason; Christian minorities in Lebanon and Armenia fostered education and journalism.

• Literature and art: The Nahda (Arab Renaissance) revived Arabic prose and poetry; Persian and Turkish writers blended realism with nationalism.

• Architecture: Cairo’s modern boulevards, Tehran’s avenues, and oil-era Gulf skylines redefined urban form while domed mosques and minarets remained emblems of continuity.

• Music and media: Radio and cinema from Cairo, Tehran, and Istanbul spread popular culture across linguistic and sectarian boundaries.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

Desert agriculture expanded through artesian wells and canals; the introduction of cash crops like cotton in Egypt and tobacco in Iran restructured rural economies. Oases sustained date-palm and grain cultivation, while pastoralists adjusted routes to motor transport and border restrictions. In coastal cities, desalination and modern infrastructure emerged to offset water scarcity.

Political & Military Shocks

• Imperial decline and reform:

  • The Ottoman Empire weakened, culminating in its dissolution after World War I.

  • Egypt’s Muhammad Ali dynasty modernized administration and industry but fell under British occupation (1882).

  • Iran’s Qajar dynasty faced constitutional revolution (1905–11) and later Pahlavi modernization (from 1925).

• World Wars and mandates: British and French mandates carved up former Ottoman territories; Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Transjordan, and Palestine emerged under European oversight.

• Nationalism and revolution:

  • Turkey’s Republic (1923) under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk secularized and industrialized Anatolia.

  • Arab nationalism surged—Nasser’s Egypt championed anti-imperial unity.

  • Iran underwent the 1951 oil nationalization crisis and the White Revolution (1963).

  • The Zionist movement culminated in the creation of Israel (1948) and successive Arab–Israeli wars (1948, 1956, 1967).

• Oil and Cold War: The discovery of major oil fields (Iran 1908; Iraq 1927; Saudi Arabia 1938; Kuwait 1938) made the region central to global power politics. U.S. and Soviet rivalry deepened through alliances and arms races.

Transition

Between 1828 and 1971, the Near and Middle East transformed from imperial provinces and desert sultanates into a mosaic of nation-states, revolutionary republics, and monarchies bound by oil and ideology. The collapse of Ottoman and colonial empires unleashed nationalist movements, while petroleum wealth and Cold War geopolitics redefined economies and alliances. In the deserts of Arabia and the deltas of the Nile and Tigris-Euphrates, modernization coexisted with faith, and cities like Cairo, Tehran, and Riyadh became centers of a region poised between deep tradition and global transformation

The Middle East (1924–1935): Consolidation of New States and the Rise of National Identities

Between 1924 and 1935, the Middle East undergoes critical transformations, as newly established nation-states begin consolidating their political structures amid a backdrop of European mandates, nationalist movements, and significant geopolitical tensions. The legacy of Ottoman disintegration persists, influencing regional dynamics, even as new political entities emerge, laying the groundwork for modern national identities.

The Rise of Saudi Arabia

In the Arabian Peninsula, Abdulaziz ibn Saud continues his relentless campaign to unify the fragmented tribes under a centralized, Wahhabi-influenced state. In 1924, he conquers the Hijaz from the Hashemite ruler Sharif Hussein ibn Ali, capturing the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. This conquest dramatically enhances Abdulaziz’s legitimacy in the Islamic world. In 1932, he officially declares the founding of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, solidifying his dynasty's authority. Oil concessions granted to American companies during this period (1933) foreshadow the kingdom’s future economic transformation.

Mandatory Iraq and the British Influence

Iraq, under British mandate administration, experiences profound tensions arising from its diverse populations of Sunni Arabs, Shia Arabs, and Kurds. In 1925, following intense diplomatic negotiations and a League of Nations decision, the oil-rich Mosul province is officially included within Iraq’s boundaries, significantly enhancing the country's economic importance.

Britain installs King Faisal I, originally from the Hashemite family of Hejaz, as Iraq’s monarch. Though Faisal attempts to foster a unified Iraqi identity, the country remains deeply divided along ethnic, sectarian, and tribal lines. British influence and presence incite nationalist resentment, notably leading to the rise of anti-colonial political activism and movements demanding full independence.

French Mandates: Syria and Lebanon

Under French mandate control, nationalist unrest intensifies in both Syria and Lebanon. Syrians repeatedly challenge French authority, with significant rebellions erupting in the Druze-inhabited region of Jabal al-Druze in 1925, escalating into the widespread Great Syrian Revolt (1925–1927). Despite initial successes, French military superiority eventually crushes the revolt, imposing harsh control and limiting political freedoms.

In Lebanon, France’s creation of Greater Lebanon brings complex demographic shifts, amplifying sectarian divisions between Christians, Sunnis, Shias, and Druzes. Though the French promote Beirut as an economic and cultural hub, their presence exacerbates internal divisions, laying the groundwork for enduring sectarian conflict.

Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

The newly founded Republic of Turkey, under Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk), embarks upon radical modernization programs between 1924 and 1935. Atatürk seeks to secularize and westernize Turkey by abolishing the Islamic caliphate (1924), replacing Sharia law with secular legal codes, promoting women’s rights, and adopting the Latin alphabet (1928). These far-reaching reforms profoundly reshape Turkish society, distancing Turkey from its Ottoman Islamic heritage and repositioning it closer to Western nations.

In foreign policy, Turkey adopts a stance of neutrality and non-alignment, seeking peaceful relations while strongly asserting national sovereignty, as demonstrated by the Montreux Convention negotiations (concluded in 1936) over the strategic Turkish Straits.

Iran under Reza Shah Pahlavi

In Iran, the weak and ineffective Qajar dynasty ends in 1925, replaced by the ambitious and nationalist military commander Reza Shah Pahlavi. Reza Shah initiates a series of sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing Iran, similar in spirit to Atatürk's initiatives in Turkey. He seeks to consolidate central control, weaken tribal authority, build a modern national army, and implement infrastructure projects—including the ambitious Trans-Iranian Railway, construction of which begins in 1927.

Although Reza Shah curbs the influence of the clergy and introduces secular laws, his authoritarian style of governance also leads to significant opposition, especially among religious conservatives and tribal leaders marginalized by his policies.

Armenia and Azerbaijan under Soviet Rule

During this period, both Armenia and Azerbaijan remain Soviet Socialist Republics, subject to heavy Soviet centralization, industrialization, and collectivization programs under Stalin’s regime. Nationalist sentiments are harshly suppressed, with significant purges of intellectuals and political figures aimed at preventing separatism. Despite repression, both republics witness substantial educational and economic transformations, albeit tightly controlled from Moscow.

The Development of the Gulf States

On the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf, Britain consolidates its influence through treaties with the small sheikhdoms (Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, and the future United Arab Emirates). British administration focuses primarily on maintaining stability for strategic and economic interests, limiting internal development and political evolution. Nonetheless, during this era, Gulf societies experience the early impacts of oil exploration activities, setting the stage for transformative economic and social changes in the decades to come.

Legacy of the Era (1924–1935)

The period from 1924 to 1935 fundamentally reshapes the Middle Eastern political landscape. The establishment and consolidation of new nation-states, driven by nationalist ideologies, redefine regional dynamics, while European imperial powers maintain heavy influence through mandate systems and protectorates. The profound reforms initiated by Atatürk and Reza Shah establish lasting templates for modernization in Turkey and Iran, though at significant cultural and societal costs. Simultaneously, the creation of Saudi Arabia and British control over Gulf sheikhdoms sets the stage for future strategic conflicts shaped by oil wealth. The unresolved internal tensions within mandated states, particularly Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq, leave enduring legacies of instability and identity struggles, influencing Middle Eastern politics throughout the twentieth century.