Furniture and other decorative objects by Charles Rohlfs are advertised and offered by Chicago retailer Marshall Field beginning in 1899, but sales fall short of expectations.

Rohlfs designed and made furniture for his family's use as early as 1888, but he did not commence his decade-long career as a professional furniture maker until 1897.

Rohlfs has had no professional training as a furniture maker.

By century's end, Rohlfs has set up a shop on Washington Street in downtown Buffalo and begun producing examples of what he calls "artistic furniture" or the "Rohlfs style."  

Rohlfs was born in Brooklyn and studied at the Cooper Union in Manhattan.

As a young man, he worked as a stove pattern-maker while pursuing his career as an actor

He received several patents for stove designs, but had limited success as an actor.

He married the successful crime novelist Anna Katharine Green in 1884, continued his career in the stove industry after their marriage, and later made another attempt to establish his reputation as an actor.

Rohlfs's father-in-law had been prominent in the Republican Party in New York City, and in 1896, Rohlfs participated in public debates in support of William McKinley's presidential campaign.

Xavier Schoellkopf ' Schoellkopf's buildings mostly consist of speculative apartment houses that are populating the fashionable western 16th and 17th arrondissements as well as private town houses.

Although Guadet and Paulin had distinguished themselves as rather conservative designers, Schoellkopf has become one of the leading practitioners of the upstart new style that took hold in Paris during the 1890s, Art Nouveau, which is characterized by its asymmetry, emphasis on line, whiplash and irregular curves, movement, and in many cases its frank use of iron, glass, and modern, non-traditional materials. 

Very little survives of Schoellkopf's own words about architecture.

In one, published in the review L'Art décoratif in 1901, he discloses that he hopes to create a new kind of building adapted to modern needs that might be able to capture the building's "raw character" that he claims is lost upon its completion.

This same year, he completes probably his best-known work, the townhouse on the avenue d'Iéna for the singer and cabaret performer Yvette Guilbert (now demolished), whose façade might be described as a wedding cake of arabesques and contours translated into stone.

Schoellkopf's career virtually parallels that of Art Nouveau's existence in Paris, as he launched his practice at almost exactly the same time that the style arrived in the city, and dies just as the fad's popularity had expired, just before the outbreak of the First World War.

Northwest Europe (1900–1911): Edwardian Transformation, Imperial Struggles, and Social Reforms

The End of the Victorian Era and Edwardian Beginnings

The death of Queen Victoria in January 1901 marked the symbolic close of the Victorian age. Her son, Edward VII (1901–1910), ascended the throne, inaugurating the Edwardian era. Unlike his mother’s stern and symbolic image, Edward VII embraced modernity, elegance, and social vitality, reflecting Britain’s increasingly cosmopolitan character. His reign coincided with significant transformations—political, social, and technological—that set Britain on the path toward modernity.

The Boer War and Imperial Difficulties

The Second Boer War (1899–1902) continued into the early Edwardian period, profoundly shaping British politics and imperial policy. Initially expecting an easy victory, Britain faced unexpectedly fierce guerrilla resistance from Boer commandos. Despite their vastly inferior numbers—only 410,000 Afrikaners—the Boers waged a tenacious guerrilla campaign, inflicting heavy casualties and revealing deep deficiencies within the British Army’s structure, training, and command.

Historian Andrew Roberts later emphasized the authoritarian nature of the Boer republics, particularly President Paul Kruger’s restrictive Transvaal administration, which denied citizenship and political rights to non-Boer “Uitlanders,” despite their economic contributions. British efforts to protect Uitlander rights had escalated tensions into war.

Although Britain eventually secured victory through superior numbers, weaponry, and often-brutal tactics—including internment of Boer civilians in concentration camps—the conflict severely damaged Britain’s international reputation, prompting domestic introspection regarding military efficiency and imperial morality.

Liberal Ascendancy and Social Reform under Campbell-Bannerman and Asquith

After years of Conservative dominance under Lord Salisbury (Prime Minister 1886–92, 1895–1902) and his nephew Arthur Balfour (1902–1905), the British public decisively shifted towards Liberalism. Under Liberal Prime Ministers Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1905–1908) and subsequently H. H. Asquith (1908–1916), Britain undertook significant domestic reforms, laying foundations for the modern welfare state.

The Liberal government’s landmark social legislation included:

• Old Age Pensions Act (1908): providing state pensions to alleviate poverty among the elderly.

• National Insurance Act (1911): introducing compulsory health and unemployment insurance for workers.

• People’s Budget (1909): proposed by Chancellor David Lloyd George, imposing higher taxes on wealthy landowners to fund welfare reforms, prompting intense political controversy with the Conservative-dominated House of Lords.

These reforms, driven by moral urgency and political pragmatism, sought to address poverty and social inequalities exacerbated by rapid industrialization.

Constitutional Crisis and the Parliament Act of 1911

The confrontation between Liberals and Conservatives peaked with the Constitutional Crisis of 1909–1911. The Conservative-controlled House of Lords repeatedly blocked the People’s Budget, challenging Commons supremacy. Prime Minister Asquith responded by calling two general elections in 1910, resulting in Liberal-led coalitions. Ultimately, the Liberals enacted the Parliament Act of 1911, drastically reducing the Lords’ power by eliminating their absolute veto over financial legislation and significantly curbing their legislative powers.

This crisis profoundly reshaped British governance, affirming democratic principles and dramatically altering the constitutional balance.

The Rise of the Labour Party and Changing Class Dynamics

The Edwardian era saw profound shifts in British politics, marked by the rising influence of the working class. The Labour Party, formed in 1900 as the Labour Representation Committee, gained parliamentary representation by 1906, emerging as a major political force advocating workers’ rights and social justice. Labour’s growth reflected increasingly assertive trade unions, rising working-class consciousness, and dissatisfaction with traditional Liberal and Conservative elites.

The Irish Question and Continuing Tensions

Ireland remained a divisive political issue. Despite earlier failed Home Rule efforts under Gladstone, Irish nationalists intensified demands for self-government. The Irish Parliamentary Party, now under John Redmond, sustained pressure for Home Rule, while Ulster Protestants vehemently opposed it. Although postponed by constitutional battles, the issue of Irish Home Rule loomed large, portending future conflicts.

Women’s Suffrage Movement and Changing Gender Roles

The campaign for women’s suffrage intensified dramatically during the Edwardian era. Organizations like the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), founded in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst, adopted militant tactics, gaining national prominence. Their confrontational approach—public demonstrations, hunger strikes, and acts of civil disobedience—provoked public debate and political pressure, significantly advancing the suffrage cause, despite resistance from traditional political establishments.

Imperial Rivalries and Diplomatic Realignments

Internationally, Britain faced mounting challenges to its imperial hegemony. Germany’s aggressive naval expansion under Kaiser Wilhelm II posed serious threats to British naval supremacy, provoking deep anxiety in British policy circles. Britain gradually abandoned its traditional "splendid isolation," engaging in cautious diplomatic realignments:

• Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902): Britain’s first formal alliance, securing its Asian interests.

• Entente Cordiale with France (1904): resolving colonial disputes and marking a diplomatic shift.

• Anglo-Russian Entente (1907): defusing Central Asian tensions and completing the Triple Entente with France and Russia, forming strategic diplomatic counterweights against Germany.

These alliances marked Britain’s reluctant shift toward Continental engagement, driven by strategic necessity amid rising geopolitical tensions.

Cultural and Artistic Transformations: Edwardian Elegance and Arts and Crafts

Culturally, the Edwardian period embraced sophistication and elegance, contrasting with Victorian austerity. Social elites pursued leisure and luxury, epitomized by grand London society balls and the international popularity of King Edward VII’s cosmopolitan lifestyle. Meanwhile, the Arts and Crafts Movement, inspired by designer and socialist thinker William Morris, continued influencing Victorian taste, advocating artisanal quality and aesthetic simplicity, significantly shaping design, architecture, and decorative arts.

Technological Progress and Economic Competition

Technological advances accelerated, fueling Britain’s economic prosperity and social modernization. The era saw rapid electrification, expanded railway networks, widespread automobile adoption, and early aviation experiments. Yet, industrial competition intensified significantly from Germany and America, challenging Britain’s global economic leadership and prompting concerns about industrial stagnation and economic decline.

Military Reforms and Naval Arms Race

The Boer War’s painful lessons led Britain to significant military reforms. The Haldane Reforms (1906–1912), under War Secretary Richard Haldane, restructured the British Army into an expeditionary force and a reserve-based Territorial Force, significantly modernizing military organization.

Simultaneously, Britain engaged in a costly naval arms race with Germany, symbolized by the revolutionary HMS Dreadnought (1906), sparking accelerated battleship construction by both powers, intensifying tensions that presaged World War I.

Scandinavian and Icelandic National Developments

Northern Europe remained relatively stable. In 1905, Norway peacefully achieved independence from Sweden, asserting its distinct national identity. Iceland’s nationalist aspirations strengthened, pursuing increasing autonomy under Danish rule. Denmark itself pursued domestic stability, emphasizing internal reform and cautious neutrality.

Cultural Flourishing and Edwardian Literature

Literature flourished, reflecting Edwardian social tensions and complexities. Prominent authors like George Bernard Shaw, E.M. Forster, and H.G. Wells explored social inequalities, class tensions, and modern anxieties, enriching Britain’s cultural and intellectual landscape.

Conclusion: Transition to Modernity

From 1900 to 1911, Northwest Europe, particularly Britain, underwent profound transformations. The Edwardian era replaced Victorian certainties with greater openness and complexity. Social reforms laid early foundations of the welfare state, while constitutional crises reshaped political power. Imperial rivalries, military reform, and diplomatic realignment reflected Britain’s global insecurities, presaging the conflicts ahead. The rise of Labour, intensifying suffrage movements, and shifting gender roles demonstrated fundamental social changes. Collectively, these developments marked Britain’s turbulent passage from Victorian tradition to twentieth-century modernity, setting the stage for the profound upheavals soon to follow.

Charles Rohlfs participates at the Arts and Crafts Exhibition at the National Arts Club in New York in December 1900.

The next year, he participates both as an exhibitor and as an organizer of the Pan-American Exposition in his hometown of Buffalo.

The Exposition brings him fame.

Rohlfs is the only American furniture maker known to have participated in the International Exposition of Decorative Art in Turin in 1902.

Perhaps as a result of the exposure he receives there, Rohlfs becomes a member of the Royal Society of Arts in London.

After he retires from furniture making around 1907, Rohlfs becomes a leader of the Chamber of Commerce in Buffalo.

He actively campaigns for child labor reform and is an advocate of the metric system. 

Léon Bakst, a cofounder with Sergey Diaghilev of the journal Mir Iskusstva ("World of Art") in 1899, begins to design scenery in 1900, first at the Hermitage court theater and then at the imperial theaters.

Bakst, now thirty-four, had attended the Imperial Academy of Arts at St. Petersburg but was expelled after painting a too-realistic "Pietà", returned to Russia after completing his studies in Paris, and became a court painter.

The so-called "Glasgow" style is exhibited in Europe and influences the Viennese Art Nouveau movement known as Sezessionstil (in English, the Vienna Secession) around 1900.

Charles Rennie Mackintosh and Margaret Macdonald Mackintosh exhibit to great acclaim at the Eighth Secession Exhibition in Vienna, as does Charles Robert Ashbee.

Mackintosh, his future wife Margaret MacDonald, her sister Frances MacDonald, and Herbert MacNair had met at evening classes at the Glasgow School of Art and become known as a collaborative group, "The Four", or "The Glasgow Four", and are prominent members of the "Glasgow School" movement.

The group exhibits in Glasgow, London and Vienna, and these exhibitions help establish Mackintosh's reputation.

Mackintosh also works in interior design, furniture, textiles and metalwork.

Much of this work combines Mackintosh's own designs with those of his wife, whose flowing, floral style complements his more formal, rectilinear work. 

Margaret, exhibiting with Mackintosh, is an influence on the Secessionists Gustav Klimt and Josef Hoffmann.

Victor Horta applies his rich, elegant style to the Hôtel Solvay at 224 Avenue Louise (1895-1900), notable for the plastic treatment of its façade.

The large Art Nouveau town house had been commissioned by Armand Solvay, the son of the wealthy Belgian chemist and industrialist Ernest Solvay.

Designing every single detail—furniture, carpets, light fittings, tableware and even the doorbell—Horta uses expensive materials such as marble, onyx, bronze, tropical woods, etc.

For the decoration of the staircase, Horta cooperates with the Belgian pointillist painter Théo van Rysselberghe.

After this project, he simplifies his style, using decoration more sparingly and eliminating exposed iron.

Charles Robert Ashbee, leader of the Arts and Crafts Movement in England, becomes acquainted with Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, where the latter is developing his vision of prairie architecture.

Gustav Stickley had experimented briefly with furniture designs in the fashionable Art Nouveau mode before introducing a new line of sturdy oak furniture whose virtues of simplicity, functionality, and soundness of construction are for Stickley an expression of democratic values.

In 1900, through the Tobey Furniture Company of Chicago, Stickley introduces a catalog titled “New Work”, which represents his first efforts at designing and manufacturing Arts & Crafts furniture, influenced by sources as diverse as American Colonial furniture, Art Nouveau, Oriental furniture, and Stickley’s New York contemporary, Charles Rohlfs.

Limited largely to chairs, small benches, small stands, and a few small cabinets, the “New Work” catalog represents the beginnings of Stickley’s career as a champion of the Arts & Crafts movement. 

Stickley had learned basic furniture-making skills in a Pennsylvania chair factory owned by an uncle.

Taking  over the factory after a time, he had moved it to Binghamton, New York, in 1884.

René Lalique's gold-and-enamel Art Nouveau combs and brooches, such as his "Dragonfly Woman Corsage Ornament" (1897-98) attract great attention at the Paris international exhibition.

Trained from 1878 to 1889 at the School of Decorative Arts, Paris, and in London, Lalique had founded his own firm at Paris in 1885.