Narcotics
2637 BCE to 2115 CE
The term "narcotic"", based on the Greek word for narcosis, the term used by Hippocrates for the process of numbing or the numbed state, is believed to have been coined by the Greek physician Galen to refer to agents that numb or deaden, causing loss of feeling or paralysis.
Galen listed mandrake root, altercus (eclata) seeds, and poppy juice (opium) as the chief examples.
Narcotics originally referred medically to any psychoactive compound with sleep-inducing properties.
In the United States, it has since become associated with opiates and opioids, commonly morphine and heroin, as well as derivatives of many of the compounds found within raw opium latex.
The primary three are morphine, codeine, and thebaine (while thebaine itself is only very mildly psychoactive, it is a crucial precursor in the vast majority of semi-synthetic opioids, such as hydrocodone).
The term opiate should be differentiated from the broader term opioid, which includes all drugs with morphine-like effects, including opiates, semi-synthetic opioids derived from opiates (such as heroin, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, oxycodone, and oxymorphone), and synthetic opioids that are not derived from opiates (such as fentanyl, buprenorphine, and methadone).
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Knowledge of the opium poppy reaches China in about the late seventh or early eighth century when Arab traders first introduce Opium thebaicum from the Egyptian fields at Thebes.
The Suppression of Opium Knowledge During the Inquisition
During the Inquisition, opium, once known in medieval European medicine, largely disappeared from historical records due to its association with the East, which was increasingly viewed with suspicion by Church authorities.
Opium’s Early Use in Europe
- Opium had been widely known in antiquity, used by the Greeks, Romans, and Islamic physicians for its pain-relieving and sedative properties.
- In medieval Europe, it was introduced through Arab medical texts, particularly those translated in Spain and Italy.
- Famous medieval physicians like Avicenna (Ibn Sina) promoted its use in medical treatments, and it was included in early apothecaries' inventories.
The Inquisition and the Suppression of Eastern Knowledge
- As the Catholic Church intensified its control over intellectual thought, the Inquisition targeted "heretical" knowledge, including medical texts influenced by the Muslim world.
- The Renaissance-era Church increasingly associated Eastern sciences, alchemy, and exotic substances with heresy and the Devil.
- Opium, a substance linked to Arab and Asian medical traditions, was gradually excluded from European pharmacology.
The Decline of Opium in European Records
- By the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance, references to opium became scarce in scholarly and medical texts.
- Its import and use diminished as trade routes with the East became more restricted by religious scrutiny.
- The Church’s fear of "pagan" and "heretical" knowledge led to a decline in the academic study of substances like opium.
The Reintroduction of Opium in Early Modern Europe
- Opium reemerged in Europe during the Age of Exploration (16th–17th centuries), as Portuguese, Dutch, and British merchants rediscovered it through their contacts in India and China.
- The Jesuits, traveling in Asia, played a key role in reintroducing opium-based medicines, including laudanum, in the 16th century.
- By the 17th century, opium had returned to European medicine, particularly through the writings of Paracelsus and Thomas Sydenham, who revived its use for pain relief and sedation.
Conclusion: A Temporary Erasure from Western Knowledge
During the Inquisition, the Church’s fear of Eastern influence led to the suppression of knowledge related to opium, temporarily erasing it from European medical discourse. However, with the rise of global trade and renewed scientific inquiry, opium made its way back into European medicine, becoming a key substance in early modern pharmacology.
The rebellion against Eric of Pomerania, the king of the Kalmar Union, led by Swedish nobleman Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson in 1434-1436, results in the deposing of Eric as well as erosion of the union.
The Burgundian School: The Birth of Renaissance Polyphony (15th Century)
The Burgundian School refers to a group of composers active in the 15th century, primarily associated with the court of the Dukes of Burgundy, in what is now northern and eastern France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. This musical movement was the first phase of the Franco-Flemish School, laying the groundwork for Renaissance music in Europe.
I. Key Composers of the Burgundian School
The most notable composers associated with the Burgundian School include:
- Guillaume Dufay (c. 1397–1474) – The leading composer of the school, Dufay’s polyphonic innovationshelped shape early Renaissance music.
- Gilles Binchois (c. 1400–1460) – A composer known for expressive and elegant chansons, particularly courtly love songs.
- John Dunstaple (c. 1390–1453) – An English composer, his influence on continental polyphony helped shape Burgundian music.
- Antoine Busnois (c. 1430–1492) – A later Burgundian composer who bridged the transition into the Franco-Flemish School.
II. Musical Characteristics of the Burgundian Style
- Polyphony – Compositions feature multiple independent voice parts, blending melodic and harmonic elements.
- Equality of Voices – Unlike earlier medieval music, where the melody dominated, Burgundian music gave equal importance to all voices.
- Harmonic Structure – The music moved toward a more pleasing and consonant harmonic style, anticipating humanistic ideals of the Renaissance.
- Secular and Sacred Repertoire – While sacred music (Masses and motets) was prominent, composers also wrote secular chansons that reflected courtly themes and love poetry.
III. Influence and Legacy
- The Burgundian School set the stage for the Franco-Flemish School, which dominated Renaissance music across Europe.
- Composers like Josquin des Prez (a later Franco-Flemish master) inherited and expanded on the polyphonic traditions of the Burgundian School.
- The integration of humanistic principles into music, particularly the focus on balanced harmonies and expressive text setting, marked a major shift in European musical aesthetics.
The Burgundian School was the foundation of Renaissance music, merging medieval polyphonic intricacy with humanistic balance and harmony, ultimately shaping the future of Western classical music.
Residents of Persia and India continue to eat and drink opium mixtures for recreational use.
The Bhavaprakasha, an Indian medical text written in the mid-sixteenth century, describes the use of opium.
The primary interests of Humayun, the twenty-two-year-old son and successor of Mughal dynasty founder Babur, lie not in conquest but rather in wine, opium, poetry, and astrology.
Elizabeth I and the Portuguese Succession Crisis: A Strategic Gamble (1580s)
By the 1580s, the Portuguese Empire—including Brazil, the East Indies, India, and trading posts in China—was under Spanish control, following Philip II’s annexation of Portugal in 1580. Seeking to counter Spanish power in Europe and gain access to Portugal’s trade routes, Queen Elizabeth I of England considered an alliance with Portugal’s exiled pretender, Dom António, Prior of Crato.
Elizabeth I’s Interest in the Portuguese Empire
- Elizabeth’s chartered ships were instructed to purchase the finest Indian opium and transport it back to England, signaling an early English interest in the lucrative Asian trade controlled by the Portuguese.
- By securing an alliance with the Portuguese crown, Elizabeth hoped to:
- Disrupt Spain’s maritime dominance.
- Break Spanish control over Portugal’s trade networks in Asia and the Americas.
- Open commercial opportunities for English merchants and privateers.
The Portuguese Succession Crisis and Dom António’s Weak Position
- Philip II of Spain had been accepted as King of Portugal in 1580 by the Portuguese nobility, particularly due to:
- His superior military strength.
- His pledge to maintain Portuguese autonomy under the Iberian Union.
- Dom António, Prior of Crato, the last surviving male of the House of Aviz, sought to reclaim the throne with foreign assistance.
Dom António’s Disadvantages
- Illegitimacy: His claim was weaker than that of Philip II or even Catherine, Duchess of Braganza, who had strong noble backing.
- Lack of Charisma and Political Acumen:
- He failed to establish a stable government in exile, even in the Azores, which remained his last stronghold against Spain.
- Unlike the Braganza family, he lacked widespread support among the nobility.
- Constant Danger from Spanish Assassins:
- Philip II sent agents to eliminate him, forcing him to move from one refuge to another before finally seeking asylum in England.
Elizabeth’s Support for Dom António
- Elizabeth I favored Dom António for the same reasons as Catherine de’ Medici—as a useful tool against Spain rather than a genuinely viable ruler.
- While Dom António secured English naval backing, his campaigns to reclaim Portugal were ultimately unsuccessful, as:
- The Portuguese aristocracy had largely accepted Spanish rule.
- His military expeditions were poorly executed, particularly the 1589 English-led attack on Lisbon, which failed to rally Portuguese support.
Conclusion: An English Gamble That Failed
Elizabeth’s attempts to use Dom António to challenge Spanish control over Portugal ultimately failed, as Portuguese nobles preferred Philip II over a weak, illegitimate claimant. However, the Anglo-Portuguese connection laid the groundwork for future English influence in Portuguese trade and maritime affairs, particularly in India, the East Indies, and China, where England would later establish its own commercial empire.
Cornelis de Houtman’s abrasive temperament leads to conflict during his second expedition to Aceh, culminating in a violent confrontation on September 11, 1599.
Fierce battles soon erupt between Dutch forces and the Acehnese navy, commanded by the formidable Admiral Keumalahayati (Malahayati), one of history’s earliest known female admirals. In one of these engagements, Malahayati personally kills de Houtman, dealing a significant blow to the Dutch expedition.
News of the confrontation reaches Elizabeth I of England, prompting her to dispatch an emissary to the Sultan of Aceh, seeking permission for English ships to navigate the Strait of Malacca.
Meanwhile, Cornelis’s brother, Frederick de Houtman, is captured and imprisoned in northern Sumatra. During his two-year captivity, he makes productive use of his time by studying the Malay language and conducting astronomical observations.
After his release and return to Holland in 1603, Frederick publishes his stellar observations as an appendix to his Malay and Malagasy dictionary and grammar, Spraeck ende woordboeck inde Maleysche ende Madagaskarsche talen.
The founders of the East India Company greatly value the eyewitness reports of Ralph Fitch, who in the 1580s had been among the first Englishmen to travel through India and Southeast Asia, on all that he had seen in his travels; they consult him on Indian affairs.
During this time ships belonging to the company arrive in India, commanded by Captain William Hawkins and docking at the Gujarat port of Sura on August 24, 1608.
He carries twenty-five thousand pieces of gold and a personal letter to the Mughal Emperor Jehangir (sometimes also rendered as Cehangir or Ichan Guire) from King James I seeking trade concessions.
Permission had been granted, and on April 10, 1591, three ships had sailed from Torbay around the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea on one of the earliest English overseas Indian expeditions.
One of them, Edward Bonaventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594.
In 1596, three more ships had sailed east but all had been lost at sea.
Three years later, on September 22, 1599, another group of merchants meets and states their intention "to venture in the pretended voyage to the East Indies (the which it may please the Lord to prosper), and the sums that they will adventure", committing £30,133.
Two days later, on September 24, "the Adventurers" reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project.
Although their first attempt had not been completely successful, they had nonetheless sought the Queen's unofficial approval to continue, bought ships for their venture and increased their capital to £68,373.
The Adventurers convene again a year later.
This time they succeeded, and on December 31, 1600, the Queen grants a Royal Charter to "George, Earl of Cumberland, and 215 Knights, Aldermen, and Burgesses" under the name, Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies.
For a period of fifteen years the charter awards the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan.
Any traders in breach of the charter without a license from the company are liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo (half of which goes to the Crown and the other half to the company), as well as imprisonment at the "royal pleasure".
The governance of the company is in the hands of one governor and twenty-four directors or "committees", who make up the Court of Directors.
They, in turn, report to the Court of Proprietors, which appoints them.
Ten committees report to the Court of Directors.
According to tradition, business is initially transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolph's church in Bishopsgate, before moving to India House in Leadenhall Street.
The Company, along with the Dutch and French counterparts that soon follow, will contend with the Iberians for the domination of world trade as exploration and colonization proceeds apace.
In March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commands the second voyage.
General William Keeling, a captain during the second voyage, leads the third voyage aboard the Red Dragon from 1607 to 1610 along with the Hector under Captain William Hawkins and the Consent under Captain David Middleton.