Also in 22 BCE, Augustus grants Herod the regions Trachonitis, …

…Batanaea, and Auranitis to the northeast.

Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class.

When Augustus fails to stand for election as consul in 22 BCE, fears arise once again that Augustus is being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate.

In this year there is a food shortage in Rome that sparks panic, while many urban plebs call for Augustus to take on dictatorial powers to personally oversee the crisis.

After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate, Augustus finally accepts authority over Rome's grain supply "by virtue of his proconsular imperium", and ends the crisis almost immediately.

Nevertheless, there are some who are concerned by the expansion of powers granted to Augustus by the Second Settlement, and this comes to a head with the apparent conspiracy of Fannius Caepio and Lucius Lucinius Varro Murena.

In early 22 BCE, charges are brought against Marcus Primus, the former proconsul (governor) of Macedonia, of waging a war on the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace, whose king is a Roman ally, without prior approval of the Senate.

He is defended by Murena, who tells the trial that his client had received specific instructions from Augustus, ordering him to attack the client state.

Later, Primus testifies that the orders came from the recently deceased Marcellus.

Under the Constitutional settlement of 27 BCE such orders, had they been given, would have been considered a breach of the Senate’s prerogative, as Macedonia is under the Senate’s jurisdiction, not the Princep’s.

Such an action would have ripped away the veneer of Republican restoration as promoted by Augustus, and exposed his fraud of merely being the first citizen, a first among equals.

Even worse, the involvement of Marcellus provided some measure of proof that Augustus’s policy was to have the youth take his place as Princeps, instituting a form of monarchy—accusations that had already played out during the crisis of 23 BCE.

The situation is so serious that Augustus himself appears at the trial, even though he has not been called as a witness.

Under oath, Augustus declares that he gave no such order.

Murena, disbelieving Augustus’s testimony and resentful of his attempt to subvert the trial by using his auctoritas, rudely demands to know why Augustus has turned up to a trial to which he has not been called; Augustus replies that he has come in the public interest.

Although Primus is found guilty, some jurors vote to acquit, meaning that not everybody believes Augustus’s testimony.

Then, sometime prior to September 1, 22 BCE, a certain Castricius provides Augustus with information about a conspiracy led by Fannius Caepio against the Princeps.

Murena is named among the conspirators.

Tried in absentia, with Tiberius acting as prosecutor, the jury finds the conspirators guilty, but it is not a unanimous verdict.

Sentenced to death for treason, all the accused are executed as soon as they are captured without ever giving testimony in their defense.

Augustus ensures that the facade of Republican government continues with an effective cover-up of the events.

Augustus now returns membership in the Senate from nine hundred to six hundred.

Agrippa is soon back in Rome to act on behalf of the emperor, who himself leaves for the East in 22.

The Creation of Gallia Belgica and the Reorganization of Gaul (22 BCE)

Originally part of Gallia Comata ("Long-Haired Gaul"), Gallia Belgica was separated as a distinct province in 22 BCE under the orders of Emperor Augustus. This decision followed a census of the region conducted in 27 BCE, after which Augustus' close advisor, Marcus Agrippa, restructured the governance of Gaul to improve administrative efficiency.

The Division of Gallia Comata

• Gallia Comata, the vast region of northern and central Gaul, was proving too large to govern effectively.
• In 22 BCE, Agrippa divided it into three separate provinces, based on language, ethnicity, and community ties:
  1. Gallia Aquitania – Southern Gaul, encompassing tribes with strong Iberian influence.
  2. Gallia Lugdunensis – Central Gaul, including Celtic-dominated regions with Lugdunum (modern Lyon) as its capital.
  3. Gallia Belgica – Northern Gaul, believed by Romans to be a mix of Celtic and Germanic peoples.

Gallia Belgica: A Province at the Edge of the Empire

• Gallia Belgica was initially governed from Reims, as recorded by the geographer Strabo.
• At an uncertain later date, the capital moved to Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier, Germany), which became a key Roman military and administrative center.
• The province was positioned along the Rhine frontier, where Rome maintained a strong military presence to defend against Germanic incursions.

Roman Motivation for the Division

• While the Romans claimed to have divided Gaul along ethnic and linguistic lines, modern historians argue that this was a product of faulty ethnography.
• The division was likely a pragmatic administrative decision, aimed at:
  • Strengthening provincial governance by creating smaller, more manageable territories.
  • Enhancing tax collection and military organization.
  • Securing the empire’s northern borders, especially against Germanic threats beyond the Rhine.

Legacy of the Administrative Reforms

• The division of Gallia Comata laid the foundation for the long-term organization of Roman Gaul, with each province developing distinct identities.
• Gallia Belgica remained a frontier province, often serving as the launching point for Roman campaigns into Germania.
• The establishment of Trier as the provincial capital transformed it into one of the most important cities of the Western Roman Empire, particularly under the later Tetrarchy.

The reorganization of Gaul under Augustus was a key step in consolidating Roman rule in the region, ensuring greater efficiency in governance, defense, and economic management for centuries to come.

The establishment of the Korean kingdom of Baekje in 18 BCE heralds the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period.

According to the Samguk Sagi, the founder of Baekje is Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jumong and So Seo-no, who leads a group of people from Goguryeo south to the Han River basin.

According to the Chinese record San Guo Zhi, during the Samhan period, one of the chiefdoms of the Mahan confederacy was called Baekje.

According to the detailed account in the Samguk Sagi, Jumong had left his son Yuri in Buyeo when he left that kingdom to establish the new kingdom of Goguryeo.

Becoming King Dongmyeongseong, Jumong had two more sons with So Seo-no, Onjo and Biryu.

When Yuri later arrived in Goguryeo, Jumong promptly made him the crown prince.

Realizing Yuri would become the next king, So Seo-no left Goguryeo, taking her two sons Biryu and Onjo south to found their own kingdoms with their people, along with ten vassals.

She is remembered as a key figure in the founding of both Goguryeo and Baekje.

Onjo settles in Wiryeseong (present-day Hanam), and calls his country Sipje (meaning "Ten Vassals"), while Biryu settleds in Michuhol (present-day Incheon), against the vassals' advice.

The salty water and marshes in Michuhol make settlement difficult, while the people of Wiryeseong live prosperously.

Biryu then goes to his brother Onjo, asking for the throne of Sipje.

When Onjo refuses, Biryu declares war, but loses.

In shame, Biryu commits suicide, and his people move to Wiryeseong, where King Onjo welcomes them and renames his country Baekje ("Hundred Vassals”).

Under pressure from other Mahan states, King Onjo moves the capital from the south to the north of the Han river, and then south again, probably all within present Seoul.

The Middle East: 21–10 BCE

Stabilization and Diplomatic Consolidation

In 20 BCE, tensions between Rome and Parthia ease significantly following successful diplomatic negotiations led by Augustus. To solidify this diplomatic understanding, Phraates IV returns the Roman standards previously captured from Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae (53 BCE) and from Mark Antony's campaign (36 BCE). This symbolic act restores Roman pride and greatly enhances Augustus’s prestige in Rome, reinforcing his image as a powerful yet prudent leader who achieves victory through diplomacy rather than warfare.

Phraates IV further solidifies peace by sending several of his sons as hostages to Rome, a common practice meant to guarantee good behavior between powerful empires. These royal hostages not only serve as assurances against future conflicts but also as a bridge for cultural and political exchanges between Parthia and Rome.

Meanwhile, Parthia itself enjoys a period of relative stability and internal consolidation under Phraates IV, despite lingering discontent among certain segments of the nobility. The empire continues to benefit economically from its strategic control of trade routes linking the Mediterranean world with Central and South Asia, ensuring the region's continued prosperity.

In the broader Near East, Roman influence steadily expands through a careful blend of direct control and client kingships, with client rulers managing local affairs under Roman oversight. This era thus marks a critical phase of diplomatic stability and controlled expansion, emphasizing the Roman Empire's strategic preference for maintaining peace and influence through carefully managed alliances and diplomacy rather than outright conquest.

Brass is available in sufficient supply by the first century BCE to use as coinage in Phrygia and Bithynia, and after the Augustan currency reform of 23 BCE it is also used to make Roman dupondii and sestertii.

The uniform use of brass for coinage and military equipment across the Roman world may indicate a degree of state involvement in the industry.

Near East (21–10 BCE): Augustan Consolidation and Herodian Rule

With Egypt securely annexed as a Roman province, the Near East undergoes further integration into the rapidly expanding Roman Empire under the stable rule of Octavian, who has now taken the title Augustus. Egypt, crucial to Rome for its grain supplies, is administered directly by Roman prefects to ensure the smooth flow of resources essential to Rome’s stability.

In the Levant, Herod the Great, Rome’s loyal client king of Judea, embarks on an ambitious building program to solidify his authority and enhance his legacy. Notable among these projects is the reconstruction and expansion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, begun around 20 BCE, transforming it into one of the grandest religious complexes of the ancient world.

Herod's extensive building projects also include the construction of the port city of Caesarea Maritima, which significantly boosts commerce and Roman influence in the region. The city, dedicated to Augustus, symbolizes Judea’s integration within the Roman sphere.

During this period, Augustus solidifies administrative reforms across the provinces of the Near East, enhancing imperial control and ensuring greater economic efficiency. His governance fosters a relative peace known as the early stages of the Pax Romana, profoundly shaping the Near Eastern cultural and political landscape.

Legacy of the Era

The era from 21 to 10 BCE is marked by the steady consolidation of Roman imperial power in the Near East, with Judea transformed under Herod into a showcase of Roman-aligned ambition. Herod's architectural projects, particularly the renovation of the Jerusalem Temple, leave an enduring cultural and historical impact, shaping religious and political dynamics that will resonate deeply in subsequent eras.

The yoke of empire on Greece is relatively light; many Greek cities approve the new order set forth by Augustus.

Rome demands only two things from its Greek holdings: security and revenue.

In Athens, which enjoys imperial favor, a spacious market for the sale of oil and other commodities is laid out east of the old Agora with funds originally provided by Caesar and supplemented by Augustus.

In the old Agora itself, the emperor’s deputy Agrippa builds a new odeum, or concert hall, in the middle of the square.

A large building, perhaps a law court, is also erected at the northeast corner.

On the Acropolis, a small round temple is erected to the goddess Roma and the emperor Augustus.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (21–10 BCE): Augustus and the Foundation of Caesaraugusta

The era 21–10 BCE highlights Augustus’s profound influence on Roman territorial and urban expansion, marked notably by the strategic foundation of new cities in Iberia, reinforcing Rome’s imperial transformation through colonization and consolidation.

Foundation of Caesaraugusta

During this period, Augustus founds Caesaraugusta—modern-day Zaragoza—in Iberia, strategically establishing a city to settle veterans from the Cantabrian Wars. Caesaraugusta occupies the site of the ancient Iberian village Salduie(known as Salduba in Roman sources), representing Rome's policy of rewarding military service and ensuring territorial stability.

Although the exact date of Caesaraugusta’s founding remains uncertain, historical evidence places it confidently between 25 BCE and 12 BCE. This urban development exemplifies the broader Roman effort to solidify control and integrate conquered territories into the imperial structure.

Veteran Settlements and Romanization

The establishment of veteran colonies such as Caesaraugusta is a deliberate strategy employed by Augustus to anchor Roman authority in newly acquired regions. By settling Roman citizens—particularly veterans—in these territories, Augustus ensures the proliferation of Roman culture, law, and governance, significantly influencing the historical trajectory of Iberia.

Administrative Consolidation and Governance

Augustus continues his administrative reforms, improving provincial governance by enhancing local autonomy, efficiency, and reducing corruption. These measures strengthen Rome’s administrative framework, promoting economic prosperity and societal stability throughout the provinces.

Cultural and Ideological Patronage

Augustus’s rule also sustains significant cultural patronage, promoting literature, arts, and public architecture to emphasize imperial values of peace, prosperity, and moral integrity. Such cultural projects reinforce Augustus’s image as the restorer of Roman traditions and virtues.

Legacy of the Era

The era 21–10 BCE exemplifies Augustus's strategic approach to empire-building through urban foundations and veteran settlements, laying robust foundations for Roman influence in Mediterranean Southwest Europe. These actions significantly contribute to Rome’s long-term stability and the consolidation of imperial authority.