King Horik I is killed in 854…

The Moravian Prince Rastislav persuades Boris I to help him against East Francia in 854.

According to some sources, some Franks bribed the Bulgarian monarch to attack Louis the German.

The Bulgarian-Slav campaign is a disaster, and Louis scores a great victory and invades Bulgaria.

At the same time, the Pannonian Croats wage a war against the Bulgarians.

Both peoples had coexisted peacefully up to that time, suggesting that the Croats had been paid by Louis to attack Bulgaria and distract Boris' attention from his alliance with Great Moravia.

Boris cannot achieve any success, and both sides exchange gifts and settle for peace.

Taranto is in 854 again the base for an Arab raid, led by Abbas-ibn-Faid, …

…which sacks the Lombard province of Salerno.

The Stalemate on the Seine Ends: Godfrid’s Withdrawal (Spring 854)

After spending the winter of 853–854 encamped on an island near Les Andelys, Godfrid Haraldsson and his Viking fleet withdraw in the spring of 854, likely after receiving a tribute (Danegeld) from Charles the Bald.

The End of the Siege: A Likely Frankish Payout

• With Frankish land forces unable to attack due to their lack of boats, the Vikings remain secure throughout the winter.
• As spring arrives, Godfrid chooses to withdraw, suggesting that a negotiated settlement was reached.
• The Franks likely paid a tribute to persuade the Vikings to leave, as had been done in 845 after the sack of Paris.

Implications of the 854 Withdrawal

• A Pattern of Viking Tribute Payments → This marks another example of West Frankish kings opting to pay off the Vikings rather than engage in open battle.
• Continued Vulnerability of West Francia → The failure to repel the invasion without tribute further encourages Norse incursions, as it demonstrates the kingdom’s weakness.
• Foreshadowing Viking Settlements → The ability of Viking forces to winter unchallenged along the Seine lays the groundwork for future permanent Viking holdings, culminating in the creation of Normandy under Rollo in 911.

A Temporary Peace, Not an End to Viking Raids

Though Godfrid sails away, Viking attacks on West Francia’s river towns will continue, forcing Charles the Bald to seek new defensive strategies, including the construction of river forts and alliances with Viking leaders. However, the events of 853–854 highlight the Carolingian monarchy’s ongoing struggle to effectively counter the Viking threat.

The peace between Bulgaria and Eastern Francia is restored as a result of the military actions in 855, and Rastislav is forced to fight against Louis alone.

The fifteen-year-old Emperor Michael, after quarreling with his mother, connives at the murder of Theoktistos by his maternal uncle Bardas in November 855.

The Frankish emperor Lothair I, who rules the “middle realm” of what had been Charlemagne's empire, divides his realm in September 855, allotting Italy to his eldest son and co-emperor Louis II, who had governed the peninsula since 844.

After Lothair's death a few weeks later, Louis II becomes sole emperor, a dignity that implies rule over only part of the Carolingian dominions, without suzerainty over the whole.

He declares in 855 that no Jews can remain within his kingdom.

Pope Leo has held three synods, one in 850 that was distinguished by the presence of Holy Roman Emperor Louis II, but the other two are of little importance.

The history of the papal struggle with Hincmar of Reims, which begins during Leo's pontificate, belongs properly to that of Nicholas I. Leo dies on July 17, 855 and is buried in St. Peter's Basilica.

Benedict III is Leo's immediate successor, beginning his papacy on September 29, 855.

A medieval tradition claimed that a woman, Pope Joan, succeeded him, disguising herself as a man, but Joan is generally believed to be fictitious.

Little is known of Benedict's life before his papacy.

He was educated and lived in Rome and was cardinal priest of the church of San Callisto at the time of his election.

Benedict has a reputation for learning and piety.

He had been elected upon the refusal of Hadrian, the initial choice of the clergy and people.

A group of important people prefer a different candidate, Anastasius.

This latter group has Benedict's election disavowed and Anastasius installed.

However, popular opinion is so strong that Benedict's consecration is allowed.

The envoys of Emperor Louis II force Benedict to handle Anastasius and his adherents leniently.

The schism helps to weaken the hold of the emperors upon the popes, especially upon their elections.

The Creation of Lotharingia (855): Emperor Lothair I’s Final Act

In 855, Emperor Lothair I, ruler of Middle Francia, decides to divide his kingdom among his sons before abdicating and retiring to the monastery of Prüm, where he dies soon after. His decision permanently fragments the Middle Kingdom, creating new political entities that will shape the future of medieval Europe.

The Division of Middle Francia

Lothair I's empire is split among his three sons:

1. Louis II → Receives Italy, inheriting the imperial title and the crown of Lombardy.
2. Lothair II → Inherits the northern part of Middle Francia, including Alsace-Lorraine and much of the present-day Low Countries.
3. Charles of Provence → Takes control of Provence, which extends from Burgundy to the Mediterranean coast.

The Birth of Lotharingia

• The realm of Lothair II comes to be known as Lotharingia, named after him.
• It stretches from the North Sea to the Alps, including key territories such as:
  • Frisia (modern Belgium and the Netherlands).
  • Alsace-Lorraine (a contested region between France and Germany for centuries).
  • Burgundy and Upper Lorraine.
• Unlike West Francia (France) and East Francia (Germany), which develop into stable medieval kingdoms, Lotharingia remains politically unstable, frequently contested by France and Germany.

The Significance of Lotharingia

• A Kingdom Without a Lasting Identity → While West and East Francia gradually evolve into France and Germany, Lotharingia becomes a battleground, torn between rival Carolingian and later Holy Roman Empire factions.
• The Root of Franco-German Rivalry → The division of Lotharingia sets the stage for centuries of territorial disputes over Alsace-Lorraine and the Low Countries.
• Eventual Absorption → After Lothair II's death in 869, Lotharingia is partitioned between West Francia and East Francia, ensuring that the region remains divided and contested for generations.

Thus, Lotharingia, born from Lothair I’s abdication, becomes a short-lived but historically significant kingdom, shaping the political geography of medieval Europe and fueling future conflicts between France and the Holy Roman Empire.

odfrid Haraldsson and Rorik’s Attempt to Seize the Danish Throne (855) and Their Return to Frisia

Following the death of King Horik of Denmark in 855, the Viking leaders Godfrid Haraldsson and his cousin Rorik, both members of the Danish royal family, attempt to seize power in Denmark. However, their bid for the throne fails, likely due to opposition from other rival factions among the Danish nobility.

Return to Frisia and the Retaking of Dorestad

• After their failure in Denmark, Godfrid and Rorik return to Frisia, where they had previously ruled as vassals of Emperor Lothair I.
• They retake Dorestad, an important trading center that had suffered decline due to repeated Viking raids in the preceding decades.
• Along with Dorestad, they seize control of a large part of what is now the Netherlands, reestablishing Viking dominance over Frisia.

The Disappearance of Godfrid Haraldsson

• After the events of 855, historical sources fall silent regarding Godfrid Haraldsson.
• It is likely that he died shortly afterward, either in battle, an internal dispute, or from natural causes.
• Rorik, however, continues to rule in Frisia, maintaining his position as a semi-independent Viking ruler within the Frankish realm.

Significance of Their Rule in Frisia

• Their return to Frisia further weakens Carolingian control over the region, forcing Frankish rulers to negotiate with Viking leaders rather than expel them.
• The permanent presence of Viking warlords like Rorik in Frisia foreshadows the later establishment of Viking-ruled territories in Francia, such as the Duchy of Normandy in 911.

Though Godfrid Haraldsson vanishes from historical records after 855, his role in the Viking power struggles in Denmark and Frisia reflects the shifting allegiances and territorial ambitions of Norse leaders in the mid-9th century.