Napoleon’s Consolidation of Power in Western Europe…

John Hunter's difficulties as governor had soon begun: Phillip had immediately left the colony and the military took complete control.

During the lieutenant-governorship of Francis Grose, who has unmercifully exploited the convicts, a great traffic in alcoholic spirits has sprung up, on which there is an enormous profit for the officers concerned.

They have obtained the control of the courts and the management of the lands, public stores, and convict labor.

Hunter realizes that these powers have to be restored to the civil administration, a difficult task, and in John Macarthur he has an opponent who will hardly stop at anything in defending his supposed rights.

Hunter eventually finds himself practically helpless.

A stronger man might have sent the officers home under arrest, but it is not unlikely that if Hunter had attempted to do so he would have only precipitated the rum rebellion that will took place during the administration of William Bligh.

Anonymous letters have even sent to the home authorities, charging Hunter with participation in the very abuses he is striving to prevent.

Hunter, despite his vehement defense of the charges made against him, had been recalled in a dispatch dated November 5, 1799 from the Duke of Portland, one of the three secretaries of state.

Hunter acknowledges this dispatch on April 12, 1800, and leaves for England on September 28, 1800, handing over the government to the Lieutenant-Governor Philip Gidley King.

King, suffering from gout, had returned from Norfolk Island to England in October 1796, and after regaining his health, and resuming his naval career, had been appointed to replace Hunter as the third Governor of New South Wales.

He sets about changing the system of administration, and appoints Major Joseph Foveaux as Lieutenant-Governor of Norfolk Island.

His first task is to attack the misconduct of officers of the New South Wales Corps in their illicit trading in liquor, notably rum.

He tries to discourage the importation of liquor, and begins to construct a brewery.

However, he finds the refusal of convicts to work in their own time for other forms of payment, and the continued illicit local distillation, increasingly difficult to control.

José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva, a Brazilian politician, naturalist, professor and poet, has studied chemistry and mineralogy with other scientists in his trips around Europe, collecting data, conducting scientific experiments and discovering four new minerals and eight types of previously unknown species.

The mineral andradite is named after him.

Among his other discoveries is petalite, a lithium-containing material, first discovered by Andrada at the beginning of the eighteenth century on a trip to Sweden; it in this mineral that Swedish chemists in 1817 will first discover lithium.

Bonifácio also is the first to discover another important lithium-containing mineral, spodumene, from the same source, Utö island near Stockholm.

Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 1 in C major, Op. 21, premieres at the Burgtheater, in Vienna, on April 2, 1800.

It is not known exactly when Beethoven finished writing this work, but sketches of the finale will be found to be from 1795.

Dedicated to Baron Gottfried van Swieten, an early patron of the composer, the symphony is clearly indebted to Beethoven's predecessors, particularly his teacher Joseph Haydn as well as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, but nonetheless has characteristics that mark it uniquely as Beethoven's work, notably the frequent use of sforzandi and the prominent, more independent use of wind instruments.

Sketches for the finale are found among the exercises Beethoven wrote while studying counterpoint under Johann Georg Albrechtsberger in the spring of 1797.

Friedrich von Schlegel champions romanticism in 1800 in his Dialogue on Poetry, a critical work emphasizing the subjective aspects of literature.

Napoleon sends Moreau to campaign in Germany, and goes himself to raise a new army at Dijon and march through Switzerland to attack the Austrian armies in Italy from behind.

Narrowly avoiding defeat, he bests the Austrians at the Battle of Marengo and reoccupies northern Italy.

Moreau meanwhile invades Bavaria and wins a great battle against Austria at Hohenlinden.

Moreau continues toward Vienna and the Austrians sue for peace.

The developments in Greece occasion panic in Constantinople, for they seem to indicate that the seditious and atheistic doctrines of the French Revolution have arrived at the very borders of the empire.

Napoleon's invasion of Egypt drives Selim into alliance with Great Britain and Russia.

The Ottoman Empire is labeled universally by 1800 as "The Sick Man of Europe."

The empire is precariously near total collapse and ready to be dismantled by a powerful neighbor, just as the Ottomans had dismantled the Byzantine Empire.

The logical successor in this case is Russia, an expanding empire with strong religious and cultural ties to the captive Slavic groups, and a continuing desire to achieve access to the Mediterranean Sea.

The Omanis oust the ruling Al-Khalifa family from Bahrain in 1800; they will occupy the country for two years.

The ruler of the Jammu region cedes control of his region to Ranjit Singh in 1800.

Alessandria falls to France with Napoleon's success at the Battle of Marengo and becomes the capital of the Napoleonic Département of Marengo.

During this period another substantial fort will be built to the north of the city containing impressive and substantial barracks which will still be used as a military headquarters and stores in the twenty-first century.

The remains of a second fort to the south of the city (Cristo quarter) have been sliced in two by a railway (Forte ferrovia); a third one still remains in the middle of the same quarter (Forte Acqui).

The Jews are again ghettoized, and the restrictions against them reimposed, due to the restoration of the old rulers in Italy in 1799.