Nero's adviser, Burrus, dies in 6. Additionally,…

Catus Decianus, who had fled to Gaul, is replaced by Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus, who has expressed concern to the Emperor Nero that the punitive policies of the governor, Suetonius Paulinus, will lead to continued hostilities.

Nero dispatches his freedman, Polyclitus, to lead an inquiry.

An excuse, that Suetonius had lost some ships, is found to relieve him of command and replace him with the more conciliatory Publius Petronius Turpilianus.

The historian Suetonius tells us the crisis had almost persuaded Nero to abandon Britain.

Vologases had been prevented from attacking the vassal king of Adiabene by an invasion of the eastern nomads, according to Josephus.

At last, a peace is concluded, by which the Parthians sign a treaty with Corbulo acknowledging Tiridates as king of Armenia, but he has to become a vassal of the Romans; he goes to Rome, where Roman emperor Nero gives him back the diadem; from this time forward, an Arsacid dynasty rules in Armenia under Roman supremacy.

Vologases is satisfied with this result, and will honor the memory of Nero (Suetonius Nero, 57).

The Pharisees (despite the unflattering portrayal of them in the New Testament) are for the most part intensely religious Jews and adhere to a strict though non-literal observance of the Torah.

Politically, however, the Pharisees have no sympathy with the intense Jewish nationalism of such sects as the military patriotic Zealots and are willing to submit to Roman rule if only the Jews could maintain their religious independence.

The Roman-supported Sadducees, drawn mainly from the conservative and aristocratic priestly class, have engaged in an ongoing power struggle with the Pharisees, who tend to be middle class and open to religious innovation.

The struggle has led to rancor and, in some instances, violence.

The Sadducees reject the Pharisee's markedly fatalistic emphasis on divine providence, as well as their belief in resurrection and elaborate angelology.

The Pharisees also differ from the Sadducees in their use of oral legal tradition to supplement the Torah.

However, all scrupulously adhere to the Pharisaic interpretations of the law, once given.

Pallas does not elude Nero's wrath forever: he is killed on Nero's orders in 63—possibly to gain access to his large fortune, part of which was his by right as Pallas' official patron.

Some money must have gone to Pallas' family, as a descendant of his became consul in 167.

According to Suetonius, Nero "showed neither discrimination nor moderation in putting to death whomsoever he pleased" during this period.

Roman satirist Aulus Persius Flaccus has ignored Nero’s outrages, instead directing his intensely metaphorical style to six brief satires on familiar, timeless stoic topics.

According to the Life contained in the manuscripts, Persius was born into an equestrian family at Volterra, a small Etruscan city in the province of Pisa, of good stock on both parents' side.

When six years old he lost his father; his stepfather died a few years later.

At the age of twelve, Persius came to Rome, where he was taught by Remmius Palaemon and the rhetor Verginius Flavus.

During the next four years he developed friendships with the Stoic Lucius Annaeus Cornutus, the lyric poet Caesius Bassus, and the poet Lucan.

Lucan would become a generous admirer of all Persius wrote.

He also became close friends with Thrasea Paetus, the husband of Arria, a relative of Persius's; over the next ten years Persius and Thrasea Paetus share many travels together.

Later, he had met Seneca, but was not impressed by his genius.

In his boyhood, Persius had written a tragedy dealing with an episode in Roman history, and another work, probably on travel (although this would have been before the travels with Thrasea Paetus).

Reading the satires of Lucilius made Persius want to write like him, and he set to work on a book of his own satires.

But he writes seldom and slowly; a premature death (uitio stomachi) prevented him from completing the book; he died on November 24, 62 at 27.

He has been described as having "a gentle disposition, girlish modesty and personal beauty", and is said to have lived a life of exemplary devotion towards his mother Fulvia Sisenna, his sister and his aunt.

To his mother and sister he left his considerable fortune.

Cornutus suppresses all his work except the satires, to which he makes some slight alterations before handing it over to Bassus for editing.

It proves an immediate success.

Herculaneum, now enjoying modest prosperity as a Roman resort in the first century CE, suffers a serious earthquake in CE 62 or 63, which destroys parts of the town and …

…nearby Pompeii.

The Romans regard Mount Vesuvius, which dominates the two seaside towns, as an extinct volcano, and do not interpret the quake as a sign of its renewed activity.

The Scandinavians make open boats, both of hollowed-out logs and planked lumber, such as the Nydam boat (now preserved at Kiel and dated, by coins found near the boat, as between CE 69 and 217).

About eighty-two feet (twenty-five meters) long, the boat, which has fourteen pairs of oars and a rudder, but no sail, is made of planks fitted clinker style (each plank overlapping the one beneath it), rather than carvel-built, with the planks fitted edge to edge.

The Conspiracy of Piso and the Fall of Nero (65–68 CE)

The conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso in 65 CE marked a turning point in Emperor Nero’s reign, reflecting the widespread dissatisfaction among the Roman elite over his increasingly despotic and erratic rule.

• Piso, a prominent senator, sought to overthrow Nero, rallying support from senators, equestrians, military officers, and even some of Nero’s inner circle.
• The plot was discovered, leading to mass executions, including the deaths of the philosopher Seneca, the poet Lucan, and the general Faenius Rufus.
• Paranoia consumed Nero, as he increasingly alienated the Senate, the Praetorian Guard, and provincial governors, accelerating his downfall.

By 68 CE, multiple governors and legions revolted, and the Senate declared Nero an enemy of the state (hostis publicus). Facing certain execution, Nero committed suicide on June 9, 68 CE, famously lamenting:

"Qualis artifex pereo!" (What an artist dies in me!).

The Year of the Four Emperors (68–69 CE): Rome in Chaos

Following Nero’s death, Rome was plunged into civil war, as multiple generals vied for the throne. Over a tumultuous eighteen months, the empire saw the rise and fall of four emperors:

1. Galba (June 68 – January 69 CE)

   • The Senate declared Galba emperor, but he alienated the Praetorian Guard by refusing to pay them a promised donative.
   • His harsh governance led to his assassination by supporters of Otho.

2. Otho (January – April 69 CE)

   • Otho quickly seized power, but his reign was challenged by Vitellius, who had the backing of the German legions.
   • After losing the Battle of Bedriacum, Otho committed suicide rather than prolong the civil war.

3. Vitellius (April – December 69 CE)

   • Initially victorious, Vitellius' reign was marred by extravagance, incompetence, and brutality.
   • His rule was challenged by Vespasian, the commander of the eastern legions, who had secured the loyalty of Syria, Egypt, and Judea.
   • Vitellius was captured and killed by Vespasian’s forces.

4. Vespasian (July 69 – 79 CE)

   • Vespasian consolidated power, bringing an end to the civil war and establishing the Flavian dynasty.

Broader Consequences of the Political Anarchy

The instability of 69 CE had far-reaching effects, extending beyond Rome:

• The Batavian Rebellion (69–70 CE)

  • The Batavi, a Germanic auxiliary people in Germania Inferior (modern Netherlands), led a major revolt against Roman rule.
  • Led by Julius Civilis, they exploited Rome’s civil war to briefly expel Roman forces from the Rhine frontier.
  • Vespasian’s general, Petillius Cerialis, eventually crushed the rebellion, restoring Roman authority.

• The Jewish Revolt (66–73 CE)

  • The Jewish Revolt in Judea, which had begun in 66 CE, remained unresolved during the Roman civil war.
  • After securing the throne, Vespasian left the final suppression of the revolt to his son, Titus, who would capture and destroy Jerusalem in 70 CE.

Legacy of the Year of the Four Emperors

• The chaos of 68–69 CE revealed the fragility of imperial succession, demonstrating that power lay in the hands of the legions rather than the Senate.
• The Flavian dynasty, established by Vespasian, marked the beginning of a more stable and militarized Rome, ensuring that future emperors would need strong military backing to maintain power.
• The pattern of civil wars and contested successions would repeat throughout Roman history, particularly during the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284 CE).

The Piso Conspiracy, Nero’s downfall, and the Year of the Four Emperors signified the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the beginning of a new era, where military loyalty determined imperial legitimacy.

The Iranian-speaking Sarmatians, a combination of tribes who have overwhelmed and replaced the Scythians, their distant kinsmen, in eastern Europe, penetrate the Roman province of Lower Moesia (present Bulgaria) during the time of Nero's rule (54-68).

Like the Scythians, the Sarmatians are highly developed in horsemanship and warfare.

Their administrative capability and political astuteness contribute to their gaining widespread influence.

Owing to their common nomadic and Central Asian heritage, Sarmatian society parallels that of the Scythians, but there are many differences.

The Scythian gods are those of nature, while the Sarmatians venerate a god of fire to whom they offer horses in sacrifice.

In contrast to the reclusive, domestic role of Scythian women, unmarried Sarmatian females, especially in the society's early years, take arms alongside men.

Sarmatian female warriors may have inspired the Greek tales of the Amazons.

The disorders of 69, the so-called year of the four emperors ushered in by the death of Nero, take troops away from the Rhine and Danube frontiers.

Sarmatians thereupon raid the Danubian lands.

The assailants are repelled without undue difficulty; but the Sarmatian Iazyges, now firmly in control of the region between the Tisza and Danube rivers, pose a threat for the future.

They present the Roman army with a new and formidable challenge along the Danube frontier, since at least some of the Sarmatian cavalrymen are armored in the Parthian fashion.

However, such warriors are comparatively few in number, big horses and armor being always expensive, and the Sarmatian feudal polity makes them unable to organize large-scale raids.

As a result, the Roman limes will hold for another two centuries.