Rabanus Maurus, as abbot of Fulda from…

The sack of Amorium had been one of the most devastating events in the long history of Arab raids into Anatolia.

Theophilos reportedly had fallen ill soon after the city's fall, and although he recovered, his health remains in poor state until his death, three years later, on January 20, 842.

Later Byzantine historians will attribute his death before the age of thirty to his sorrow over the impact of the city's loss, although this is most likely a legend.

The fall of Amorium inspires several legends and stories among the imperial Greeks, and can be traced in surviving literary works such as the Song of Armouris or the ballad Kastro tis Orias ("Castle of the Fair Maiden").

Arabs, on the other hand, celebrate the capture of Amorium, which becomes the subject of Abu Tammam's famous Ode on the Conquest of Amorium.

In reality, the military impact on the Empire was limited: outside the garrison and population of Amorium itself, the imperial field army at Anzen seems to have suffered few casualties, and the revolt of the Khurramite corps had been suppressed without bloodshed the next year and its soldiers reintegrated into the imperial army.

Ancyra had quickly been rebuilt and reoccupied, as was Amorium itself, although it will never recover its former glory and the seat of the Anatolic theme is for a time transferred to Polybotus.

Theophilos’s two-year-old son becomes a child emperor as Michael III.

A council of regency is set up, in which the dowager empress, Theodora, and her chief minister, Theoktistos, are the leading figures.

Presian's reign coincides with the extension of Bulgarian control over the Slavic tribes in and around Macedonia.

It is known that the Serbs and Bulgars lived in peace until the invasion in 839 (the last years of Theophilos).

Vlastimir, the Knez of Serbia, had united several Serbian tribes, and Emperor Theophilos (r. 829–842) grants the Serbs independence, thus the Serbs acknowledge nominal overlordship of the Emperor.

The annexation of western Macedonia by the Bulgars changes the political situation: Presian may have seen a threat in the Serb consolidation, and opted to subjugate them in midst of the conquest of Slav lands.

Another cause might have been that the Empire wanted to divert the attention so that they could cope with the Slav Uprising in the Peloponnese, meaning they would have sent the Serbs to instigate the war.

Presian invades Serbian territory between 839–842 .

The invasion leads to a three-year war, in which Vlastimir is victorious; Presian makes no territorial gains, is heavily defeated and loses many of his men as the Serbs have a tactical advantage in the hills; he is driven out by the army of Vlastimir.

The war ends with the death of Theophilos in 842, which releases Vlastimir from his obligations to the Empire.

The entire Jewish population of Babylonia in the 830s had become embroiled in the so-called Exilarch Contention between Daniel, a sympathizer with Karaism, and David ben Judah, who had eventually become Exilarch (Greek for 'Prince of Captivity), holding office until 840.

The Succession Crisis Following the Death of Alfonso II

The death of King Alfonso II of Asturias triggers a succession crisis, as rival factions contest the throne.

According to the Chronicle of Alfonso III, which was commissioned by King Ramiro I’s grandson, the childless Alfonso II had chosen Ramiro, a distant kinsman and son of Bermudo I, as his successor.

However, at the time of Alfonso’s death, Ramiro was outside Asturias, either in Castile (or Bardulia, as referred to in the Chronicle of Alfonso III), attending his marriage ceremonies.

Nepotian’s Challenge and the Battle of Cornellana

In Ramiro's absence, Nepotian, the comes palatii (palace steward) and son-in-law of the late king, seizes the opportunity to claim the throne. He secures the support of Astures and Vascones who had been loyal to Alfonso II.

Upon hearing of Nepotian’s usurpation, Ramiro gathers support in Galicia, forming an army and marching toward Oviedo.

Nepotian prepares to confront Ramiro at Cornellana, near the Narcea River, but is defeated in the Battle of the Bridge of Cornellana.

The Fall of Nepotian

Following his defeat, Nepotian flees, but is pursued and captured by Counts Scipion and Sonna. As punishment, he is blinded and confined to a monastery, eliminating his challenge to Ramiro’s rule.

This victory secures Ramiro I’s reign and reaffirms the stability of the Asturian monarchy despite the internal divisions that emerged after Alfonso II’s death.

The Oaths of Strasbourg (842): A Landmark in Political and Linguistic History

The Oaths of Strasbourg, sworn in 842 between Louis the German and Charles the Bald, represent a crucial political alliance and a milestone in the development of the French language. These mutual pledges of allegiance and solidarity are made in opposition to their eldest brother, Lothair I, who, as ruler of Middle Francia and nominal Holy Roman Emperor, seeks to maintain dominance over the entire Carolingian realm.

The Strategic Context

• Following the Battle of Fontenoy (841), where Lothair suffered a crippling defeat, Louis the German and Charles the Bald consolidate their alliance.
• To reinforce their unity and secure the loyalty of their respective armies, they convene at Strasbourg in 842, where both rulers and their assembled troops swear oaths of allegiance.
• This event marks a key moment in the civil war that will lead to the Treaty of Verdun (843), permanently dividing the Carolingian Empire.

Linguistic Significance

The Oaths of Strasbourg are the earliest known written text of substantial length in a Romance language, serving as a linguistic bridge between Latin and early French. They are recorded in three languages:

1. Medieval Latin – The official scriptural language of the Frankish Empire.
2. Old High German (Rhenish Franconian dialect) – The language of Louis the German's soldiers.
3. Proto-French (Old French) – The language of Charles the Bald’s troops, marking one of the first clear instances of French as a distinct language from Latin.

The Pledges and Their Implications

• Louis and Charles each swear allegiance to the other in the language of the other's troops—ensuring their pledges are understood by their respective armies.
• The soldiers in attendance also swear separate oaths, pledging that if their own king breaks his agreement, they will not support him against the other monarch. This groundbreaking condition underscores the importance of mutual trust and signals an early form of political accountability.

Historical Impact

• The Oaths of Strasbourg mark the growing cultural and linguistic divide between the Germanic East Francia and Romance-speaking West Francia, foreshadowing the later emergence of France and Germany as distinct nations.
• The document establishes an early precedent for political contracts and military alliances, where loyalty is not solely dependent on feudal ties but also on collective responsibility.
• It directly leads to the Treaty of Verdun (843), which formalizes the partition of the Carolingian Empire, creating the borders of medieval Europe.

Legacy

The Oaths of Strasbourg are not just a political agreement; they represent a cultural and linguistic turning point in European history. By recording early Old French and Old High German, they mark the moment when Latin begins to fragment into distinct national languages, setting the stage for the evolution of modern European identities.

The Viking Sack of Quentovic (842): A Blow to Frankish Trade

In 842, Danish Vikings sack Quentovic, one of the most important Frankish trading emporiums located near the English Channel. This attack is part of the escalating Viking incursions into the Carolingian Empire, targeting strategic ports, towns, and monasteries along the coasts and riverways.

The Importance of Quentovic

• Founded in the early 6th century by a Neustrian king, Quentovic had long been a major economic hub for the Franks.
• It was one of two major Frankish ports in the north, along with Dorestad (which had already suffered repeated Viking attacks).
• The town’s port linked the Frankish continent to England, especially the southeastern county of Kent, facilitating trade in wool, cloth, wine, and metal goods.
• Its location near the Canche River, west of Étaples, provided a strategic gateway for merchants and royal revenues from tolls.

The Viking Attack and Aftermath

• The sacking of Quentovic severely disrupts Frankish trade and royal revenues.
• The town remains nominally Frankish only because Charles the Bald agrees to pay tribute to the Vikings, highlighting the Carolingian rulers' struggle to defend their coastal territories.
• The increasing frequency of Viking raids forces many Frankish rulers to grant land and payments (Danegeld) to Viking leaders, a practice that will eventually lead to the creation of Normandy in 911.

Archaeological Evidence and Rediscovery

• The exact location of Quentovic remained uncertain until the 1980s, when archaeologist David Hill led excavations west of Étaples, in what is now La Calotterie.
• Finds at the site include coins, pottery, and trade goods, confirming Quentovic’s role as a major early medieval trading center.

Long-Term Impact of the Raid

• The destruction of Quentovic marks a turning point in Viking expansion, as they begin targeting not only monasteries but also key economic and commercial centers.
• Along with the decline of Dorestad, the raid on Quentovic weakens Carolingian maritime trade, shifting commerce to more defensible inland centers.
• The sack of the town foreshadows the more devastating Viking raids on major Frankish cities like Rouen (841), Paris (845), and Nantes (843, 886).

The fall of Quentovic as a major trading center reflects the growing inability of the Carolingian rulers to protect their empire’s coastal regions, paving the way for Viking dominance in the North Sea and Frankish attempts to negotiate peace through land grants and tribute payments.

Settlement Near Noirmoutier

• After sacking Nantes, the Vikings establish a base near the island of Noirmoutier, which had been raided previously in 836.
• Noirmoutier serves as a perfect strategic location for future raids, allowing the Norse to winter on Frankish soil and conduct further attacks inland.
• This Viking presence signals a transition from seasonal raiding to permanent encampments, leading to deeper Norse incursions into West Francia.

Impact of the 842 Viking Invasion

• The Frankish kingdom is unprepared to repel Viking incursions, as Charles the Bald is still engaged in civil war against his brothers.
• The fall of Nantes and the establishment of a Viking base in Noirmoutier make the Loire Valley a primary target for future raids, culminating in:
  • The siege and destruction of Angers (845, 852).
  • Multiple sackings of Tours and Orléans throughout the mid-9th century.
  • The Viking expansion deep into Aquitaine, destabilizing Carolingian rule.

The sack of Nantes in 842 is one of the earliest major inland Viking incursions into West Francia, setting a precedent for later raids on larger Frankish cities such as Rouen (841), Paris (845, 885–886), and Bordeaux (848). It marks a turning point in Norse expansion, as Vikings shift from sporadic raiding to establishing permanent strongholds within the Frankish realm.

Mu'tasim had been preparing yet another large-scale invasion at the time of his death in 842, but the great fleet he had prepared to assault Constantinople perishes in a storm off Cape Gelidonya a few months later.

Emperor Wuzong, in an attempt to return revenues from the tax-free temple holdings to the state, had begun a persecution of Buddhists from 841 that will last until 845.

In 843 the emperor's armies win a decisive battle against the Uyghur tribes at the cost of almost bankrupting the country.

Wuzong's solution to the financial crisis is to go after the wealth that had been accumulated in the Buddhist monasteries.

Buddhism has flourished greatly during the Tang period, and its monasteries enjoy tax-exempt status.

Confucian intellectuals such as Han Yu rail against Buddhism for undermining the social structure of China, on the premise that it erodes the loyalty of son to father, and subject to ruler, by encouraging people to leave their families and to become monks and nuns, who, once they have been ordained, stop engaging in useful economic activity such as agriculture and weaving, and become a burden that has to be supported by the work of others.

The persecution seeks to return monks and nuns to the ranks of taxpaying commoners engaged in useful economic activity While Wuzong sees Buddhism as a foreign religion that is harmful to Chinese society, he becomes a zealous follower of Taoism, a faith which he regards as native to China.

Buddhism preaches the attainment of non-birth or nirvana, which its critics equate with death, while Taoism promises immortality, a notion that will increasingly capture the attention of the emperor as he grows older and less rational.