Stephen dies during October 942, and is…

Bajkam had remained amir al-umara until his death in 941, whereupon Ibn Ra'iq had seized the opportunity to recover his position: he had sidelined Bajkam's successor Kurankij and secured his own reappointment as amir al-umara in September 941.

He does not long enjoy it, however, as in early 942 he is assassinated at the orders of the Hamdanid prince Nasir al-Dawla, who, with the assistance of his brother Ali (known as Sayf al-Dawla), soon succeeds him as amir al-umara.

Merkava initiates (tzenu'im) in Babylonian Jewish mysticism, limited to a select few with specific moral qualities, are required to prepare themselves by fasting.

A successful visionary journey depends, in part, on the use of certain magical formulas (called seals) that are used to placate the angelic gatekeeper of each heavenly dwelling.

The use of an incorrect seal could result in severe injury or a fiery death.

The Talmud warns that among four men who engaged in Merkava, one died, one went mad, one apostatized, and only Rabbi Akiva ben Joseph had a true visionary experience.

Those who practice Merkava are sometimes called Explorers of the Supernatural World (Yorde Merkava).

The oldest literary sources of the movement are two hekhalot texts: the “Lesser” attributed to Rabbi Akiva, the “Greater” to Rabbi Ishmael ben Elisha.

The Book of Enoch and the Shi 'ur qoma (”Divine Dimensions”) belong to this same tradition.

The latter contains highly exaggerated anthropomorphic descriptions of God.

Known as a religious philosopher, Bible exegete, apologist, and liturgical poet, Saadia Gaon serves as head (Gaon) of the Talmudic academy of Sura, in Babylonia, and spiritual head of Babylonian Jewry.

Saadia has been party to a protracted dispute with Babylonia’s Karaite rulers over their opposition to Judaic tradition.

Among Saadia’s important translations of the Bible from the Hebrew into Arabic and his Arabic commentary on the Scriptures is his well-known Emunot ve-Deot (“Book of Beliefs and Opinions”).

In this, he expounds a system of Jewish faith, colored by Muslim rational theology (Kalam) and Aristotelianism, which harmoniously blends revelation and reason.

The first to compose a Hebrew grammar and an Order of Prayer, Saadia also writes religious poetry and a commentary on the mystical Book of Creation.

Saadia compiles his siddur (Jewish prayer book) in 940.

The office of the Exilarch, for seven centuries the seat of the temporal leader of Babylonian Jewry, seems to have been abolished in 942; dissension with the 'Abbasid rulers of the Islamic world is the precipitating factor in its demise.

'Ukba is mentioned as exilarch immediately following Hasdai II; he had been deposed at the instigation of Kohen Zedek, gaon of Pumbedita, but had been reinstated in 918 due to some Arabic verses with which he had greeted the caliph Al-Muktadir.

Deposed again soon afterward, he had fled to Kairouan, where he was treated with great honor.

After a short interregnum, 'Ukba's nephew, David ben Zakkai, became exilarch; but he had had to contend for nearly two years with Kohen Zedek before he was finally confirmed in his power (921).

In consequence of Saadia's call to the gaonate of Sura and his controversy with David, the latter had become one of the best-known personages of Jewish history.

Saadia had had David's brother Josiah (Al-Hasan) elected anti-exilarch in 930, but the latter had been defeated and banished to Khorasan.

David ben Zakkai, the last exilarch to play an important part in history, died a few years before Saadia; his son Judah died seven months afterward.

Judah had left a son (whose name is not mentioned) twelve years of age, whom Saadia had taken into his house and educated.

His generous treatment of the grandson of his former adversary is continued until Saadia's death in 942, at which the role of the Jewish Academy in Babylonia begins to decline.

Abbasid commander ibn-Ra'iq wins control of Syria by defeating its Hamdanid rulers and repulsing an invasion by the Ikhshidites of Egypt.

The Cholas, despite many skirmishes with the Pallavas and the eastern Chalukyas, have from 926 to 942 gained influence (but incompletely control) the entire southern tip of the Indian subcontinent.

Under their king Parantaka I, the Cholas have begun to annex former Pallavan lands adjacent to their kingdom and coveted by Rashrakuta, ruled by Krishna III.

The Cholans had taken Nellore from the Rashrakutans in 940.

Hugh of Italy has maintained friendly relations with Constantinople and, in 942, Hugh even comes to terms with Alberic, who marries one of Hugh's daughters.

The Attempted Pagan Revival in Normandy (c. 942): Clash Between New and Old Norse Settlers

By 942, a group of newly arrived Danish settlers in Normandy attempt to revive pagan practices, challenging the region’s gradual Christianization. However, this effort is largely unsuccessful, as most of the earlier Norse settlers—who arrived under Rollo in 911—have already converted to Christianity and integrated into Frankish feudal society.

Context: Christianization of Normandy

• The Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte (911) had established Rollo and his followers as vassals of the Frankish king, leading to their progressive adoption of Christianity.
• By the 930s–940s, many Norman noble families had converted, intermarried with the local Frankish elite, and adopted French language and customs.
• Normandy had become more culturally Frankish, though Viking influences persisted in law, military organization, and seafaring traditions.

The Danish Pagan Revival Attempt (942)

• New waves of Norse settlers, particularly Danes arriving around 942, attempt to reintroduce pagan traditions in Normandy.
• These settlers are likely unassimilated Viking warriors and traders, still following Odinic rituals and Norse customs.
• The majority of Norman elites, already Christianized, reject the attempt, seeing themselves as part of the Frankish Christian world rather than a pagan Scandinavian outpost.

Outcome: Christianity Prevails in Normandy

1. The Christianized Norman Nobility Reject Paganism

   • The descendants of Rollo and earlier Norse settlers had already become feudal lords aligned with Frankish Christian traditions.
   • These powerful figures oppose the pagan revival, ensuring that Christianity remains dominant in Normandy.

2. Assimilation of Later Viking Arrivals

   • The newly arrived Danes gradually assimilate rather than resist the prevailing Christian culture.
   • Many likely adopt Christianity over time, as conversion becomes necessary for land ownership, alliances, and political stability.

3. Normandy Continues to Strengthen as a Feudal Christian State

   • By the mid-10th century, Normandy is fully integrated into West Francia’s feudal system, making it one of the most stable and powerful regions in the kingdom.
   • This consolidation sets the stage for Norman expansion, culminating in the Norman Conquest of England in 1066.

Conclusion: The Final End of Norse Paganism in Normandy

The failed pagan revival in 942 marks one of the last significant attempts to resist Christianization in Normandy. With the Christianized Norman elite firmly in power, the region continues its transformation into a major feudal Christian state, ensuring that pagan Norse traditions fade into history.

Edmund had come to the throne in 939 as the son of Edward the Elder, grandson of Alfred the Great, great-grandson of Ethelwulf of Wessex, great-great grandson of Egbert of Wessex and great-great-great grandson of Ealhmund of Kent.

Shortly after his proclamation as king, he had had to face several military threats.

King Olaf III Guthfrithson had conquered Northumbria and invaded the Midlands; after Olaf’s death in 941, Edmund reconquers the Five Boroughs in 942, an event celebrated in verse by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

The Chronicle reports the baptism of Amlaíb, with King Edmund becoming his godfather.

This need not mean that Amlaíb was not already a Christian, nor would such a baptism have permanently committed him to Christianity, as such baptisms are often political acts.

Hywel Dda, king of Deheubarth, annexes Gwynedd and Powys in 942 to become ruler of most of Wales.

Pope Stephen, emboldened by his success in West Francia, now seeks to break up the alliance against Louis by offering Herbert’s son, Hugh of Vermandois, the office of Archbishop of Reims, a tittle the latter had held from from 925 to 931.

Along with the Pallium (the symbol of office for the archbishop), Stephen had sent another legate, with instructions to the Frankish nobility, insisting that they submit to Louis.

This time, they had been informed that if the pope has not received their embassies by Christmas, notifying him of their intent to submit to the king, they will be excommunicated.

There occurs a shift in support to Louis, as a number of the more important nobles declare for him, and by the end of 942, all of the nobility will have affirmed their loyalty to Louis, and notified the pope of their intent.

Closer to home, things are much more difficult for Stephen.

The continuing domination of the Counts of Tusculum is evident throughout Stephen’s pontificate, as it had been during that of his predecessors and successors.

Although Stephen is subject to Alberic II of Spoleto, Prince of the Romans, and does not in reality rule the Papal States, Stephen himself is not a member of this family, nor has he any relationship with the imprisoned Marozia, who had dominated Roman and papal politics during the preceding decades.

Stephen had, however, been caught up in the ongoing conflict between Alberic II and Hugh of Italy, with Hugh besieging Rome in 940.

After a failed assassination attempt against Alberic, which involved a number of bishops, Alberic had cracked down on any potential dissent in Rome, with his enemies either scourged, beheaded or imprisoned.

If there is any truth to Martin of Opava’s account of the torture and maiming of Stephen VIII by supporters of Alberic.

It must have occurred at this juncture, in the aftermath of the conspiracy, and just prior to Stephen’s death.

On August 17, 942, Alberic summons a council in Rome, where he demonstrates his control over the papacy by making use of various papal officials, such as the Primicerius, the Secundicerius of the Notaries, and the Vestararius.

According to the late thirteenth century chronicler Martin of Opava, Stephen VIII was described as being a German, who was elected pope due to the power and influence of his royal relative, the German king Otto I. Martin states that Otto ignored the will of the cardinals in imposing Stephen upon them, and because Stephen was hated for being a German, he was taken by supporters of Alberic II, who proceeded to maim and disfigure him to such an extent that Stephen was unable to appear in public again.

This version of events has largely been discredited; contemporary and near-contemporary catalogues state that Stephen was a Roman.

Further, Otto’s intervention in and influence over Italian affairs is still over a decade away, and during this period Otto is still trying to consolidate his hold on power in Germany, with major rebellions by the German dukes.

Consequently, Otto would have been too preoccupied to concern himself over the papal succession at this juncture.

Finally, Stephen’s intervention on behalf of the Frankish king Louis IV (who is in conflict with Otto) would not have occurred had Stephen been a relative of the German king, and had Stephen received the papal throne through Otto’s intervention.

The maiming of Stephen may have occurred, however, in the aftermath of the conspiracy against Alberic in the middle of 942.