The Arabs catch up with the imperial…

Ali Sayf al-Daula, 'Sword of the State', rules northern Syria from Aleppo, and has become the most important opponent of the Empire's expansion.

His court is a center of culture.

After establishing himself at Aleppo in 944, Sayf al-Dawla had resumed warfare against Constantinople in 945/946.

From this time until the time of his death, he is to be Constantinople’s' chief antagonist in the East—by the end of his life Sayf al-Dawla is said to have fought against them in over forty battles.

Nevertheless, despite his frequent and destructive raids against the Empire’s frontier provinces and into Asia Minor, and his victories in the field, his mode of warfare was essentially defensive, and he never seriously attempted to challenge Constantinople’s control of the crucial mountain passes or conclude alliances with other local rulers in an effort to roll back the imperial conquests.

Sayf al-Dawla's main opponent during the first decade of continuous conflict with the Empire is the Domestic of the Schools (commander-in-chief) Bardas Phokas, who had been appointed to the post in 945.

Phokas was the personal choice of Emperor Constantine VII, who needed a reliable ally in this critical post.

An experienced soldier, Phokas is by now well into his seventies, and not up to the task entrusted to him: even sources favorably disposed to the Phokades comment on Bardas that although a good general under someone else's command, he was unable to adequately fulfill the role of commander-in-chief.

Sayf al-Dawla, on the other hand, has come down to us—mainly through the work of his court poets—as the archetype of Arab chivalry and a great warrior, but he is greatly hampered by lack of men and money, by rebellions in his domains and by lack of support from the rest of the Muslim world.

Compared to Constantinople, Sayf al-Dawla is the ruler of a minor principality, and cannot match the means and numbers available to the resurgent Empire: the contemporary Arab sources report—with obvious, but nonetheless indicative, exaggeration—that imperial armies numbered up to two hundred thousand, while Sayf al-Dawla's largest force numbered some thirty thousand.

Sayf al-Dawla's origin in the Jazira also affect his strategic outlook in that, contrary to most Syria-based polities in history, he neglects constructing a fleet or paying any attention at all to the Mediterranean, instead concentrating his attention on rebuilding the fortresses of Cilicia and northern Syria, including Marash and Hadath.

Bardas Phokas had launched an expedition to obstruct these works, but had been defeated.

Sayf al-Dawla launches perhaps his most memorable campaigns in early 953.

From Aleppo, …

…he marches to Harran and …

…Duluk, crosses the Anti-Taurus Mountains over the pass of Darb al-Qulla (modern Erkenek) and marches north into imperial territory.

Sayf al-Daula captures the fortress of Arqa, and ravages the surroundings of Malatya.

From here, he essays to cross the mountains and return to Syria, but finds the pass in front of him blocked by Bardas' youngest son, Constantine Phokas.

The Muslims try to break through the imperial position, but their attacks are repulsed with many casualties on both sides.

Unable to return to Syria over the mountains, Sayf al-Dawla resolves to bypass the imperial forces holding the passes, and turns his army north.

After marching past Malatya, ravaging the countryside once more, ...

…Sayf al-Daula crosses the Euphrates into Anzitene, which his troops also raided extensively, and reenters the Muslim-held territory of Diyar Bakr.

Here, he is informed that in the meantime, the imperial army under Bardas Phokas has invaded northern Syria and raided as far as Antioch.

At once he turns his army south and west.

Riding at great speed, …

…Sayf al-Daula re-crosses the Euphrates at Samosata and arrives once more at Duluk, where he receives news that the imperial army is already on its march home.

According to the reports of his panegyrists, he only has six hundred riders to face the much larger imperial army.

The Fatimid realm had found itself deep in crisis due to the revolt of Abū Yazīd (943-947).

However, after the unity of the rebels began to crack, Ismāʿīl, the third Fatimid caliph, had managed to put down the revolt with the help of the Berber Zirids.

Following this victory he took the epithet al-Mansur, and built a new residence at al-Manṣūriyyah near Kairouan.

Al-Manṣūr concerns himself with the reorganization of the Fatimid state, resuming the struggle with the Umayyads of Córdoba in Morocco, and reoccupying Sicily, from where raids into Italy are recommenced.

Rule in Sicily has been reinforced through the installation of the Kalbids as Emirs.

Al-Manṣūr dies after a severe illness on March 19, 953 and leaves his realm to his son al-Mu‘izz.

Al-Muʻizz is renowned for his tolerance of other religions, and was popular among his Jewish and Christian subjects.

He is also credited for having commissioned the invention of the first fountain pen.

In 953, he demands a pen that will not stain his hands or clothes, and is provided with a pen that holds ink in a reservoir.

Frederick, a son of Reginar, Duke of Lorraine, immediately upon succeeding to the Archbishopric of Mainz in 937, had acted as an opponent of Otto I, one of the most consistent opponents he will face.

In 939, he had joined the rebellion of Eberhard III of Franconia, Gilbert of Lorraine, and Henry I of Bavaria.

He had been imprisoned in Hammelburg for a while.

He had plotted with Henry to assassinate Otto in Easter 941 in Quedlinburg, but they had been discovered and put in captivity in Ingelheim, being released and pardoned only after doing penance at Christmas of that year.

Frederick had refused to accompany Otto to Italy in 951.

He participates in 953 in another rebellion with King Otto’s son Liudolf, Duke of Swabia, and his brother-in-law Conrad, Duke of Lorraine.

Conrad is the son of Werner V, Count of the Nahegau, Speyergau, and Wormsgau.

His mother Cunigunde is a daughter of Conrad I of Germany.

In 941, he had succeeded his father in his counties and obtained an additional territory, the Niddagau.

In 944 or 945, he had also been invested with Lorraine by King Otto I.

In 947, he had married Liutgarde, daughter of Otto and Edith, daughter of Edward the Elder, King of England.

He and Liutgard have one son, Otto of Worms, later duke of Swabia and Carinthia.

King Otto, who bitterly complains about Conrad's ingratitude, is lured to Mainz.

The rebels, abandoned by the Lorrainers and without Henry's support this time, are easily crushed and punished.

Conrad is deprived of Lorraine, which is instead granted to Otto's brother, Bruno I, Archbishop of Cologne.

Eventually Conrad and Otto are reconciled.

Frederick tries to distance himself from the fighting, but will die before anything can come to him.

Margrave Gero of the Saxon Eastern March (the Marca Geronis), aided by Otto I's son-in-law, Conrad of Lorraine, launches a successful campaign in 954 to subdue the Ukrani, who had come in reach of the March after the 929 Battle of Lenzen.

Berengar II, de facto King of Italy, had appeared, through the agency of Conrad the Red, Duke of Lotharingia, at the 952 Reichstag in Augsburg and paid homage to Otto.

He and his son Adalbert remain Italian kings as Otto's vassals, though they had had to cede the territory of the former March of Friuli to him, which the German king has enfeoffed to his younger brother Duke Henry I of Bavaria as the Imperial March of Verona.

When Otto has to deal with the revolt of his son, Duke Liudolf of Swabia in 953, Berengar attacks the Veronese march; …