Peaceful relations among Arabs, Berbers, and Spanish…

Peaceful relations among Arabs, Berbers, and Spanish converts to Islam are not easily maintained.

To hold together such a heterogeneous population, Spanish Islam stresses ethics and legalism.

Pressure from the puritanical Berbers also leads to crackdowns on Mozarabs (the name for Christians in Al Andalus: literally, Arab-like) and Jews.

Mozarabs are considered a separate caste even though there are no real differences between them and the converts to Islam except for religion and liability to taxation, which falla heavily on the Christian community.

They are essentially urban merchants and artisans.

Their church is permitted to exist with few restrictions, but it is prohibited from flourishing.

The episcopal and monastic structure remains intact, but teaching is curbed and intellectual initiative is lost.

In the ninth century, Mozarabs in Córdoba, led by their bishop, had invited martyrdom by publicly denouncing the Prophet Muhammad.

Nevertheless, violence against the Mozarabs is rare until the eleventh century, when the Christian states become a serious threat to the security of Al Andalus.

Many Mozarabs flee to the Christian north.