The Middle East: 45–34 BCE

Caesar’s Ambitions and Antony’s Eastern Campaigns

Following his decisive victory in the Roman civil war, Julius Caesar plans an ambitious campaign against the Parthian Empire in 44 BCE, aiming to avenge the catastrophic defeat suffered by Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae. Caesar intends first to pacify Dacia before proceeding eastward into Parthian territory. However, Caesar's assassination halts these plans abruptly, plunging Rome into further turmoil.

Stability returns momentarily when Caesar’s assassins are defeated at the Battle of Philippi, ensuring the dominance of the Second Triumvirate. Yet Roman preoccupation with internal conflicts, notably the revolt of Sextus Pompey in Sicily, provides an opportunity for Parthia to exploit Rome’s vulnerability. In a bold strike, Parthian forces invade Roman-held Syria and the client kingdom of Judea. The Parthians overthrow Hyrcanus II, the Judean high priest and puppet Roman ruler, imprisoning him in Seleucia. In his place, they install the pro-Parthian Hasmonean prince, Antigonus, the last surviving son of former king Aristobulus II, whom Rome had previously deposed. Antigonus ensures Hyrcanus can never reclaim the high priesthood by mutilating him, biting off his ears to permanently disqualify him from office.

Capitalizing on Rome's internal discord, the Parthians forge an alliance with Quintus Labienus, son of Caesar's former general and antagonist Titus Labienus. Together, they penetrate deep into western Anatolia, successfully defeating Roman forces commanded by Decidius Saxa. This triumph proves short-lived, as a seasoned Roman army under Publius Ventidius Bassus decisively drives the invaders from Roman territories.

In 37 BCE, with the direct support of Mark Antony—one of the triumvirs and lover of Egyptian Queen Cleopatra VII—Herod, son-in-law of Hyrcanus, recaptures Jerusalem, reinstating Roman influence over Judea. With the successful suppression of the Sicilian revolt the following year, Antony turns his attention eastward toward the Parthian Empire itself. He advances into Atropatene (modern Iranian Azerbaijan) leading approximately one hundred thousand legionaries, bolstered by contingents from Roman client kingdoms including Armenia, Galatia, Cappadocia, and sovereign Pontus.

Antony's ambitious campaign ends disastrously near the fortress-city of Phraaspa, capital of Atropatene. A tactical blunder leads to severe Roman losses, compounded by harsh winter conditions during the retreat, resulting in the deaths of thousands of Roman soldiers and auxiliary forces. Antony’s army suffers a loss of more than a quarter of its strength.

Undeterred, Antony launches another campaign—funded again by Egyptian resources—successfully invading Armenia. Upon his return in 34 BCE, Antony orchestrates a mock Roman triumph in the streets of Alexandria, a spectacular display that parodies Rome’s traditional military celebrations. During the climactic moment, surrounded by Cleopatra and her children, Antony makes a significant political declaration, publicly ending his alliance with Octavian, thus setting the stage for the impending conflict that will reshape the Roman world.