The Polish success at Marienburg has been…

The sultan, who acts in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities, under a variety of titles, is at the apex of the hierarchical Ottoman system.

He is theoretically responsible only to God and God's law—the Islamic seriat (in Arabic, sharia), of which he is the chief executor.

All offices are filled by his authority, and every law is issued by him in the form of a firman (decree).

He is supreme military commander and has official title to all land.

Selim I, during the early sixteenth-century Ottoman expansion in Arabia, also adopts the title of caliph, thus indicating that he is the universal Muslim ruler.

The sultan's powers, theocratic and absolute in theory and in principle, are limited in practice.

The attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, and religious leaders have to be considered.

Three characteristics are necessary for acceptance into the ruling class: Islamic faith, loyalty to the sultan, and compliance with the standards of behavior of the Ottoman court.

The last qualification effectively excludes the majority of common Turks, whose language and manners are very different from those of the Ottomans.

The language of the court and government is Ottoman Turkish, a highly formalized hybrid language that includes Persian and Arabic loanwords.

In time, Greeks, Armenians, and Jews are also employed in state service, usually in diplomatic, technical, or commercial capacities.

Selim I (r. 1512-20) extends Ottoman sovereignty southward, conquering Syria, Palestine, and Egypt.

He also gains recognition as guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina.