Tingis, which will later be rebuilt, becomes the capital of Mauretania Tingitana.

The Mulucha (Moulouya River), about sixty kilometers west of modern Oran, Algeria, becomes the border separating the two provinces.

The Roman occupation does not extend very far into the continent.

In the far west, …

…the southern limit of imperial rule in Mauretania is Volubilis, which is ringed with military camps, such as Tocolosida slightly to the southeast and Ain Chkour to the north west, and a fossatum or defensive ditch.

Sala Colonia on the Atlantic coast is protected by another ditch and a rampart and a line of watchtowers.

Interior East Africa (45 BCE to CE 99): Axum's Rise to Regional Dominance

Territorial Expansion and Economic Prosperity

Between 45 BCE and CE 99, the Kingdom of Axum emerges decisively as a dominant regional power, strategically expanding its territory and significantly strengthening its control over trade routes connecting the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and interior African trade networks. Axum's capital, strategically located in the highlands of modern-day northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, oversees a flourishing economy driven by commerce in ivory, gold, incense, precious metals, and slaves.

Development of Axumite Urbanism

Axum and its primary port city of Adulis experience substantial urban growth during this era, becoming vibrant centers of cultural and economic activity. Advanced urban planning and infrastructure projects, including monumental architecture and sophisticated irrigation systems, reflect the kingdom’s growing wealth and administrative sophistication. These cities serve as critical hubs linking Mediterranean, African, and Arabian commercial interests.

Cultural Synthesis and Ge'ez Language

Axum continues its unique cultural synthesis, integrating indigenous East African traditions with Semitic elements introduced from the Arabian Peninsula. The Ge'ez language, now solidly established as the kingdom's administrative and cultural lingua franca, becomes increasingly sophisticated, laying the groundwork for a rich literary tradition. Inscriptions in Ge'ez script demonstrate a significant growth in bureaucratic and cultural complexity.

Religious and Cultural Developments

During this period, Axum maintains a diverse religious environment, blending local African beliefs with those imported through ongoing trade and cultural exchanges, including early influences from Judaism and pre-Christian Near Eastern religions. This syncretism positions Axum as a cultural crossroads, setting the stage for the kingdom’s later adoption of Christianity in subsequent centuries.

Strengthening Military and Administrative Power

Axum's rulers consolidate their authority through improved military organization and advanced administrative capabilities, allowing them to effectively govern and protect a growing territory. The kingdom maintains a robust military presence, essential for securing critical trade routes and establishing a firm regional hegemony.

Key Historical Developments

• Significant territorial expansion under Axumite rulers, solidifying regional dominance.

• Flourishing trade, particularly through the critical port of Adulis, enhancing Axum's economic prosperity.

• Urban growth marked by monumental architecture, infrastructure, and sophisticated urban planning.

• Deepening cultural synthesis and growth of Ge'ez as the kingdom’s official administrative and literary language.

• Continued religious syncretism setting the stage for future cultural transformations.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 45 BCE to CE 99 marks a decisive phase in Axumite history, as the kingdom becomes the predominant economic and political power in Interior East Africa. Axum’s integration into broader commercial and cultural networks fosters unprecedented regional development, shaping the trajectory of East African history through the enduring legacy of its language, culture, and political structures.

Emperor Guangwu has to deal with periodic minor battles against the Xiongnu to the north.

There are however no major wars with Xiongnu throughout his reign, but because of raids by Xiongnu, Wuhuan, and Xianbei, the northern prefectures nevertheless become largely depopulated, as the people suffer great casualties and also flee to more southerly lands.

Many Xiyu (modern Xinjiang and former Soviet Central Asia) kingdoms, suffering in 46 under the hegemony of one of the kingdoms, Shache (Yarkand), petition Emperor Guangwu to again reestablish the Western Han post of Governor of Xiyu.

Emperor Guangwu declines, stating that his empire is so lacking in strength at this time that he cannot expend efforts to protect Xiyu kingdoms.

The Xiyu kingdoms in response submit to the Xiongnu.

The Roman province of Moesia had been created in about CE 5, but the Dobruja, under the name Ripa Thraciae, had remained part of the Odrysian kingdom, while the Greek cities on the coast formed Praefectura orae maritimae.

In 46 CE, Thracia becomes a Roman province and the territories of present Dobruja, known to the Romans as Scythia Minor, are absorbed into the province of Moesia.

Asinius Gallus, the grandson of Asinius Pollio, and Statilius Corvinus are exiled in CE 46 for a plot hatched with several of Claudius' own freedmen.

Valerius Asiaticus is executed without public trial for unknown reasons.

The ancient sources say the charge was adultery, and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment.

However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious.

Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with the Statilius Corvinus mentioned above.

Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius' term as Censor, and may have induced him to review the Senatorial rolls.

Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius takes great pains to please the Senate.

During regular sessions, the Emperor sits among the Senate body, speaking in turn.

When introducing a law, he sits on a bench between the consuls in his position as Holder of the Power of Tribune (The Emperor cannot officially serve as a Tribune of the Plebes as he is a Patrician, but it is a power taken by previous rulers).

He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including Imperator) at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course.

He allows the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus.

He also puts the Imperial provinces of Macedonia and Achaea back under Senate control.

Claudius sets about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient, representative body.

He chides the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself.

An opportunity for the Eastern Han dynasty arises in 47 with regard to the Xiongnu during a succession dispute that pits the current chanyu, Punu, against his cousin Bi, the son of a former chanyu.

Roman garrisons stationed throughout Judea have exploited Jews with punitive taxation since 63 BCE, exceeding the quota set by the Roman Empire and keeping the surplus revenues for themselves.

The Roman procurators have also subjugated the Jewish High Priesthood, appointing pro-Roman Jews to positions of authority, and desecrated sacred Jewish practices with sacrilegious pagan rituals.

The Roman Emperor Caligula in 39 had declared himself divine and ordered his troops in Jerusalem to place his name on the Temple.

When the Jews refused, he threatened to destroy the temple but his sudden timely demise saved Jerusalem from a premature siege, yet Caligula's threat had caused many of the moderate Jews to shift towards radical anti-Roman political views.

As the Roman burden becomes more onerous, Jewish priests alienated by the pro-Roman high priesthood join in the effort to attain political and religious liberty by any means possible, thus forming the Zealots, who kindle anti-Roman sentiment throughout Galilee and Judea.

Josephus' Jewish Antiquities states that there were three main Jewish sects at this time, the Pharisees, the Sadducees, and the Essenes.

The Zealots are a "fourth sect", founded by Judas of Galilee (also called Judas of Gamala) and Zadok the Pharisee in the year 6 against Quirinius' tax reform, shortly after the Roman Empire declares what had most recently been the tetrarchy of Herod Archelaus to be a Roman province, and that they "agree in all other things with the Pharisaic notions; but they have an inviolable attachment to liberty, and say that God is to be their only Ruler and Lord." (18.1.6).

Some scholars argue that the group was not so clearly marked out before the first war of 66-70 as others have supposed.

The Zealots, as strict interpreters of the Law are extremists who are willing to lay their own lives down for independence from Roman domination.

They have begun to form a growing nationalist resistance movement.

Two of Judas' sons, Jacob and Simon, are from 46 to 48 involved in a revolt and are executed by Tiberius Alexander, the procurator of Iudaea province.

Claudius pays special attention to transportation, building roads and canals throughout Italy and the provinces.

Among these is a large canal leading from the Rhine to the sea, as well as a road from Italy to Germany—both begun by his father, Drusus.

Closer to Rome, he builds a navigable canal on the Tiber, leading to Portus, his new port just four kilometers (two and a half miles) north of Ostia, Rome's original harbor.

The port at Ostia is part of Claudius' solution to the constant grain shortages that occur in winter, after the Roman shipping season.

The other part of his solution is to insure the ships of grain merchants who are willing to risk traveling to Egypt in the off-season.

He also grants their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from the Lex Papia-Poppaea, a law that regulates marriage.

In addition, he repeals the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further reduces taxes on communities suffering drought or famine.

The new port, enclosing an area of sixty-nine hectares (one hundred and seventy acres), is constructed in a semicircle with two long curving moles projecting into the sea, and an artificial island, bearing a lighthouse, in the center of the space between them.

The foundation of this lighthouse is provided by filling one of the massive Obelisk ships, used to transport an obelisk from Egypt to adorn the spina of Vatican Circus, built during the reign of Caligula.

The harbor thus opens directly to the sea on the northwest and communicates with the Tiber by a channel on the southeast.

The object is to obtain protection from the prevalent southwest wind, to which the river mouth is exposed.

Though Claudius, in the inscription which he caused to be erected in CE 46, boasts that he has freed the city of Rome from the danger of inundation, his work is only partially successful: in 62 CE, Tacitus speaks of a number of grain ships sinking within the harbor during a violent storm.

Within the carefully planned town are shops, offices, and warehouses, along with public baths and lavatories, a theater, and a gymnasium.