Beringia, the so-called Bering Land Bridge, extends…

South Africa, still in the grip of the world's last Ice Age roughly twenty thousand years before the present, is occupied by people now known as San.

Remnants of San communities still survive today in the Kalahari Desert.

The San, who develop their society over thousands of years in isolation, speak a language that includes unique "click" consonants, are smaller statured, and have lighter skin pigmentation than the Bantu speakers who will later move into southern Africa.

San obtain a livelihood from often difficult environments by gathering edible plants, berries, and shellfish; by hunting game; and by fishing.

Gathering is primarily the task of women, who provide approximately eighty percent of the food-
stuffs consumed by the hunter-gatherer communities. Men hunt, make tools and weapons from wood and stone, produce clothing from animal hides, and fashion a remarkable array of musical instruments.

San also create vast numbers of rock paintings—South Africa contains the bulk of the world's
prehistoric art still extant—which express an extraordinary aesthetic sensibility and document San hunting techniques and religious beliefs.

The rock paintings also demonstrate that considerable interaction took place among hunter-gatherer communities throughout southern Africa.

The primary social unit among the San is the nuclear family.

Families join together to form hunter-gatherer bands of about twenty to fifty people. Men and women have equal status in these groups and there is no development of a hereditary chiefdom, although the male head of the main family usually takes a leading role in decision making.

Such bands move about the countryside seeking foodstuffs, sometimes remaining for long periods in particularly productive environments, sometimes splitting apart and joining other groups when food is scarce.

Because they make such limited demands on their environment, San manage to provide a living for themselves for thousands of years.

Population numbers remain small, however, and settlement is generally sparse.

Mean sea levels during the Last Glacial Maximum, which ends around 18,000 BCE, are believed to be one hundred and ten to one hundred and twenty meters (three hundred and sixty-one to three hundred and ninety-four feet) lower than present, with the direct implication that many coastal and lower riverine valley archaeological sites of interest are today under water.

Human remains in Sri Lanka dating from as early as 18,000 BCE show a genetic continuum from the prehistoric hunter-gatherers of the island to the present-day Veddas, or Beddahs, more properly known as the Wanniyala-Aetto, or "forest people."

DNA studies suggest that Wanniyala-Aetto may have been the ancestors of most Sinhalese before the arrival of the Indo-Aryans from North India.

According to both Sinhala and Vedda lore, the two races shared a few common ancestors.

Prehistoric settlements existed in southern Nevada before 18,000 BCE, as indicated by archaeological evidence.

Advancements in Weapon Construction by 18,000 BP

By 18,000 BP, early humans had made significant technological advancements in weapon-making, improving the efficiency and accuracy of their hunting tools.

Innovations in Projectile Construction

• Flint Points Secured with Sinews

  • Flint projectile points were now firmly attached to split wooden shafts using sinews as binding material.
  • This technique increased durability and impact strength, making weapons more effective for hunting large game.

• The Use of Fletching for Greater Accuracy

  • Feathers were carefully glued and bound to projectile shafts, introducing fletching—a technique that improved stability and accuracy in flight.
  • This innovation allowed projectiles to travel farther and hit targets more precisely, making hunting more efficient and reliable.

Impact on Upper Paleolithic Hunting and Warfare

• These advancements enhanced hunting efficiency, leading to greater success in capturing fast-moving prey.
• The use of composite tools, with multiple materials such as wood, sinew, stone, and feathers, reflects increasing technological sophistication.
• The refinements in projectile design paved the way for the later development of bows and arrows, revolutionizing prehistoric hunting and combat strategies.

By 18,000 BP, humans were not only mastering stone tool production but also incorporating aerodynamic principles and multi-material engineering, demonstrating an advanced understanding of physics, materials science, and hunting strategy.

Archaeological evidence suggests that much of the interior of Australia was abandoned by Aborigines during a period of harsh climatic conditions between twenty-five thousand and fifteen thousand years ago and reoccupied after conditions improved.

Tasmania becomes an island when sea levels rise sometime between thirteen thousand five hundred and eight thousand years ago and isolate the Aboriginal Tasmanians who live there from the mainland.

A farmer at Mezhirich, a village (selo) in central Ukraine, will dig up the lower jawbone of a mammoth in 1965 while in the process of expanding his cellar.

Further excavations will reveal the presence of four huts, made up of a total of one hundred and forty-nine mammoth bones.

These dwellings, dating back some fifteen thousand years, will be determined to have been some of the oldest shelters known to have been constructed by prehistoric man, usually attributed to Early European Modern Humans.

Also found on the site were a map inscribed onto a bone, presumably showing the area around the settlement; the remains of a "drum", made of a mammoth skull painted with a pattern of red ocher dots and lines; and amber ornaments and fossil shells.

The oldest known evidence of warfare will be found at Cemetery 117, an ancient burial site near Wadi Halfa, near the northern border of Sudan.

The remains of fifty-nine bodies, as well as numerous other fragmented remains will be discovered here in 1964 by a team led by Fred Wendorf.

Determined to be around 14,340 to 13,140 years old, the remains represent twenty-four females and nineteen males over nineteen years of age, as well as thirteen children ranging in age from infancy to fifteen years old.

Three additional bodies will also be discovered, but their age and sex cannot be determined due to damage and missing pieces.

The site comprises three cemeteries, two of which are called Jebel Sahaba, one on either side of the Nile river and the third cemetery being called Tushka.

About forty percent of the people buried in Jebel Sahaba had died of violent wounds.

Pointed stone projectiles are found in their bodies at places that suggest the bodies had been attacked by spears or arrows.

The wounds are located around the sternum, abdomen, back, and skull (through the lower jaw or neck).