Venice, prompted by commercial advantage and the…

Philippa gathers support in Sweden for the war against Holstein in 1426; she acquires Swedish support in the same year for the protection of Copenhagen against the Hanseatic League.

The Mamluk sultan Barsbay finally destroys ‘Aydhab in 1426 in reprisal for plundering of goods en route to Mecca.

This is part of Barsbay's campaign to secure for Egypt the exclusive rights over the Red Sea trade between Yemen and Europe.

The inhabitants of the town flee southwest to Dongola and ...

‘Aydhab, possibly established during the Ptolemaic period, had been occupied by the Beja before its conquest by Fatimid Egypt in the tenth century.

Located about twenty kilometers north of the modern port of Halayeb, ‘Aydhab became an important port for eastern trade (particularly with Yemen) and for Muslim pilgrims from Africa on their way to Mecca during the tenth and eleventh centuries.

The rediscovery of the Egyptian mines of the Wadi Allaqi led to a gold rush between the tenth and fourteenth centuries.

The establishment of the Fatimid caliphate had increased the relative importance of Egypt in Middle Eastern trade, while piracy and instability in the Persian Gulf had moved more international trade into the Red Sea.

‘Aydhab’s location needed to be this far down the coast because steady southerly winds made it difficult for large ships to travel to Suez before the age of steam.

‘Aydhab is close to Jiddah and linked by a regular ferry; caravans connect it to Aswan and other cities on the Nile.

The travelers ibn Jubayr and ibn Battuta had both passed through the town.

Maimonides's brother David had drowned on his way from ‘Aydhab to India.

Nasir Khusraw believed the region to have the best camels in the world.

The town's customs are divided between the Egyptians and the Beja nomads, who in turn protect the town and merchants.

The town had been sacked in 1182 by the crusader Raynald of Châtillon and again in around 1270 by King Dawud of Nubia.

The retaliatory raid of Dongola by the Sultan Baybars had brought that country under Egyptian vassalage.

The town had declined at the end of the Crusades and development of Suakin increased competition with other ports.

Ibn Battuta intended in 1326 to travel from Egypt to Mecca via 'Aydhab—which was at the time considered the least-traveled of three possible routes.

However, upon approaching ‘Aydhab he was forced to turn back due to a local rebellion, return to Cairo and go to Mecca by a different route.

After the rise of the Mamluks, Jiddah received preferential treatment for Indian trade.

…south to Suakin, but are massacred in the latter by the Beja inhabitants as a result of the continuing enmity between the two towns.

This dates to the mid-thirteenth century, when one of Suakin's rulers, Ala al-Din al-Asba'ani, angered the Mamluk sultan Baybars by seizing the goods of merchants who died at sea nearby.

The governor of Qus and his general Ikhmin Ala al-Din in 1264 had attacked with the support of Aydhab and An Al-Asba'ani had been forced to flee the city.

A new epidemic had arrived in Cyprus in 1419–20, which probably caused the death of Janus' second wife, Charlotte on January 15, 1422.

Because Cyprus remains a permanent base of campaign for pirates and adventurers, after raids around the Cypriot coasts, Janus had had repeated discussions with the Sultan of Egypt via the sultan's representatives.

Janus has been unable to stop the raids, which gives the Muslims a reason to attack Cyprus.

Cypriot nobles and officials of the kingdom participate in the raids.

Barsbay, the Sultan of Egypt, has sent military forces to Cyprus several times.

A small force, around 1424, had attacked Limassol, and in 1425 the Egyptian army had attacked Famagusta, then pillaged Larnaca together with the nearby area, including Kiti, Dromolaxia, Kellia, Aradippou and Agrinou.

After Larnaca, they had gone to Limassol, which was also sacked, including the city's castle.

The Mamluks launch a large-scale attack against the island in the summer of 1426.

Led by Tangriver Mohamed and Inal el Kakimi, their army contains over three thousand men and included Mamluks, Turks and Arabs and arrives at the island with one hundred and eighty ships near Avdimou.

Limassol is again occupied.

Janus musters his army and moves from Nicosia to Limassol.

He asks in vain for help from the forces in Europe: the Genoese are his enemies, and the Venetians and others do not want to destroy commercial relations with the sultan.

Following the Battle of Chirokitia against the Mamluks on July 7, 1426, King Janus is captured by the Egyptian forces.

He will be ransomed after ten months of captivity in Cairo.

During his captivity his brother Hugh of Lusignan, Archbishop of Nicosia, takes charge of Cyprus.

After their victory the Mamluks pillaged Larnaca again, then the capital of Cyprus, Nicosia.

The royal family retreats to fortified Kyrenia and are rescued.

The invaders take a great deal of loot and captives before they leave the island.

Giovanni di Paolo executes altarpieces for churches in Siena from 1426 on.

An eclectic yet distinctive painter, he borrows artistic ideas from his Sienese contemporary, Sassetta, as well as from such contemporary Florentine masters as Lorenzo Monaco, Fra Angelico, and Donatello.

Indifferent, however, to his Florentine contemporaries' preoccupation with perspective, Giovanni instead creates fantastic, seemingly endless vistas that are uniquely his own, such as that in the undated “St.

John Entering the Wilderness.” Both his panel paintings and his illuminated manuscripts display Giovanni’s special gift for depicting narratives.

Other influences that pervade Giovanni's work include the richly decorated but naturalistically detailed style of his Florentine contemporary Gentile da Fabriano, and the art of Giovanni's fourteenth-century Sienese predecessors, Duccio di Buoninsegna, Simone Martini, and the Lorenzetti family.

Pope Martin V, intervening in the Venetian-Milanese War of 1426, brings the warring parties to negotiations.

Under the peace treaty concluded in Venice on December 30, 1426, Venice gains Brescia and the environs, Florence retakes its territory lost to Milan at the turn of the century, Savoy rules the territory it acquired from Milan, and Milan is enjoined from interfering with any state between it and Rome.

Cennino Cennini has perpetuated the Late Gothic traditions of Giotto, which he had received from his teacher Agnolo Gaddi.

The Florentine painter is best known for writing Il libro dell'arte (1437; The Craftsman's Handbook), the most informative source on the methods, techniques, and attitudes of medieval artists.

Painting, according to Cennini, holds a high place among human occupations because it combines theory or imagination with the skill of the hand.

Cennini herein gives the first known explanation of the technique of painting with egg tempera.

The Battle of Brouwershaven (January 13, 1426): A Devastating Defeat for Jacqueline of Bavaria

The Battle of Brouwershaven, fought on January 13, 1426, was a decisive Burgundian victory that crippled Jacqueline of Bavaria’s resistance and irreparably damaged the English-Burgundian alliance—a key relationship that had aided the English cause in France during the Hundred Years' War.

The battle unfolded as Jacqueline’s former husband, John IV, Duke of Brabant, sought to dispute her inheritance, prompting her current husband, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, to intervene with an English force. However, Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, was well-prepared, personally leading his superior Burgundian army against the English and Zeeland forces.

I. The English Expedition and Burgundian Countermeasure

• Humphrey of Gloucester, supporting Jacqueline, sent an English force to Zeeland, but Philip the Good had advanced warning and prepared a fleet to intercept them.
• The Burgundians succeeded in capturing a small detachment of 300 English soldiers, but most of the force landed safely at Brouwershaven, where they joined their Zeeland allies.

II. Forces and Initial Deployment

• The Burgundian Army (Philip the Good) – 4,000 troops

  • Feudal retainers of the Duke of Burgundy.
  • Municipal militia from Dordrecht, The Hague, and Delft.
  • Over 1,000 militia crossbowmen and gunners from Dordrecht.

• The Zeeland and English Forces – 4,200 troops

  • Zeelanders (3,000 men) led by the Lord of Heemstede.
  • English forces (1,200 men) led by Walter FitzWalter, 7th Baron FitzWalter.

• The Zeelanders allowed the Burgundians to land unopposed, possibly hoping for an Agincourt-style victory with English longbowmen providing support.

III. The Battle: A Crushing Burgundian Victory

• As Burgundian forces were still disembarking, the English launched an attack, advancing in formation with trumpets sounding.
• The Burgundian forces retaliated with cannon fire and volleys of crossbow bolts from their municipal militia, but English longbowmen held firm and fired back, scattering the crossbowmen.
• However, the Burgundian knights, heavily armored and well-disciplined, launched a devastating counterattack, engaging the English men-at-arms in close combat.
• The English and Zeeland forces were driven onto a dike and virtually wiped out.

IV. Casualties and Aftermath

• According to Janus Reygersberg’s Chronyk en Historie van Zeeland:
  • 3,000 Zeelanders were killed, and many others captured.
• Duke Philip himself reported capturing 200 English soldiers.
• Local noble losses:
  • The Lord of Heemstede was captured.
  • Baron FitzWalter managed to escape.

V. Consequences: A Catastrophic Blow to Jacqueline’s Cause

• The defeat at Brouwershaven was devastating for Jacqueline of Bavaria, as her military capabilities were crippled.
• The battle deepened tensions between England and Burgundy, undermining the Anglo-Burgundian alliance, which had been crucial to English ambitions in France.
• Philip the Good consolidated Burgundian control over Holland and Zeeland, ensuring that Jacqueline’s claim would be increasingly difficult to restore.

The Battle of Brouwershaven (1426) was a turning point, effectively ending English intervention in Jacqueline’s favor and securing Philip the Good’s dominance in the Low Countries.