Germania Superior (Roman province)
Substate | Defunct
28 BCE to 475 CE
Germania Superior ("Upper Germania"), so called because it lies upstream of Germania Inferior, is a province of the Roman Empire.
It comprisei an area of western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany.
Important cities are Besançon (Besontio), Strasbourg (Argentoratum), Wiesbaden (Aquae Mattiacae), and Germania Superior's capital, Mainz (Mogontiacum).
It comprisea the Middle Rhine, bordering on the Limes Germanicus, and on the Alpine province of Raetia to the southeast.
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The Atlantic Lands
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The area occupied by the Helvetii—the namesakes of the later Confoederatio Helvetica—first becomes part of Rome's Gallia Belgica province, then of its Germania Superior province, while the eastern portion of modern Switzerland is integrated into the Roman province of Raetia.
Sometime around the start of the Common Era, the Romans maintain a large legionary camp called Vindonissa, now a ruin at the confluence of the Aare and Reuss rivers, near the town of Windisch, an outskirt of Brugg.
Caius Julius Vindex, governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebels against Nero's tax policy in late 67 or early 68, Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Superior, is ordered to put down Vindex's rebellion.
In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province, Vindex calls upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, to join the rebellion and further, to declare himself emperor in opposition to Nero.
Verginius' forces easily defeat those of Vindex at the Battle of Vesontio in May 68, and the latter commits suicide.
However, after putting down this one rebel, Verginius' legions attempt to proclaim their own commander as emperor.
Verginius refuses to act against Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germany and the continued opposition of Galba in Spain does not bode well for Nero.
Nero has retained some control of the situation, but support for Galba increases despite his being officially declared a public enemy.
The prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandons his allegiance to the Emperor and comes out in support of Galba.
In response, Nero flees Rome with the intention of going to the port of Ostia and from there to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces.
However, he abandons the idea when some army officers openly refuse to obey his commands, responding with a line from Vergil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a thing then to die?"
Nero then toys with the idea of fleeing to Parthia, throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or to appeal to the people and beg them to pardon him for his past offenses "and if he could not soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt".
Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the Forum.
Nero returns to Rome and spends the evening in the palace.
After sleeping, he awakens at about midnight to find the palace guard had left.
Dispatching messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, he receives no answers.
Upon going to their chambers personally, he finds them all abandoned.
When he calls for a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one appears.
He cries, "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and runs out as if to throw himself into the Tiber.(Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 47)
Returning, Nero seeks for some place where he can hide and collect his thoughts.
An imperial freedman offers his villa, located four miles outside the city.
Traveling in disguise, Nero and four loyal servants reach the villa, where Nero orders them to dig a grave for him.
At this time, a courier arrives with a report that the Senate has declared Nero a public enemy and that it is their intention to execute him by beating him to death.
At this news, Nero prepares himself for suicide.
Losing his nerve, he first begs for one of his companions to set an example by first killing himself.
At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drives Nero to face the end.
However, he still cannot bring himself to take his own life but instead he forces his private secretary, Epaphroditos, to perform the task.
Nero's famous last words from this moment are "Qualis artifex pereo" or in English "What an artist dies in me!"
When one of the horsemen enters, upon his seeing Nero all but dead he attempts to stop the bleeding in vain.
Nero dies on June 9, 68, the anniversary of the death of Octavia.
He is buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome.
With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty ends.
Chaos ensues in the Year of the Four Emperors.
Galba, praetor in CE 20, consul in 33, and governor of Aquitania respected by Augustus and Tiberius, had earned a reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germania, Africa and Hispania (Iberia, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) for his military capability, strictness and impartiality.
On the death of Caligula, he had refused the invitation of his friends to make a bid for the empire, and loyally served Claudius.
For the first half of Nero's reign he had lived in retirement, until 61, when the emperor bestowed on him the province of Hispania Tarraconensis.
Following Nero's death, Nymphidius Sabinus seeks to seize power before the arrival of Galba, but he cannot win the loyalty of the Praetorian guard and is killed.
Upon Galba's approach to the city in October at the head of a single legion, VII Galbiana, later known as VII Gemina, he is met by unarmed soldiers presenting demands; Galba replies by having his troops kill a great many many of the petitioners.
Julius Vindex, the Roman legate of Gaul, had led his Gallic legions in a revolt against Nero upon the emperor’s return in 68 from his extended Greek jaunt,
Servius Sulpicius Galba, praetor in CE 20, consul in 33, and governor of Aquitania respected by Augustus and Tiberius, had earned a reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germania, Africa and Hispania (Iberia, comprising modern Spain and Portugal) for his military capability, strictness and impartiality.
On the death of Caligula, he had refused the invitation of his friends to make a bid for the empire, and loyally served Claudius.
For the first half of Nero's reign he had lived in retirement, until 61, when the emperor bestowed on him the province of Hispania Tarraconensis.
In the spring of 68, Galba is informed of Nero's intention to put him to death, and of the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul.
He is at first inclined to follow the example of Vindex, but the defeat and suicide of the latter renews his hesitation.
The news that Nymphidius Sabinus, the Praetorian Prefect, had given him his favor revives Galba's spirits.
He has only dared until now to call himself the legate of the senate and Roman people; after Nero's suicide, he assumes the title of Caesar.
Accompanied by Marcus Salvius Otho, the thirty-seven-year-old governor of Lusitania, Galba marches straight for Rome.
This turn of events had given the German legions not the reward for loyalty that they had expected but rather accusations of having obstructed Galba's path to the throne.
Their commander, Rufus, had immediately been replaced by the new emperor.
The loss of political confidence in Germania's loyalty has also resulted in the dismissal of the Imperial Batavian Bodyguards and rebellion.
The respected Galba, noted for his integrity and extreme thriftiness, appears to have quickly stabilized a dangerous situation, but he does not remain popular for long.
On his march to Rome, he had either destroyed or taken enormous fines from towns that did not accept him immediately.
In Rome, Galba has canceled all the reforms of Nero, including benefits for many important persons.
Like his predecessor, Galba has a fear of conspirators and has executed many senators and equites without trial.
The Praetorian Guard are not happy either.
After his safe arrival in Rome, Galba had refused to pay them the rewards that the prefect Nymphidius had promised them in the new emperor's name.
Moreover, in the start of the civil year of 69 on January 1, the legions of Germania Inferior had refused to swear allegiance and obedience to Galba, and on the following day had acclaimed Vitellius, their governor, as emperor.
Hearing the news of the loss of the Rhine legions, Galba panics.
He adopts a young senator, the late Piso's brother, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus, as his successor.
By doing this, he offends many people, and above all Otho, an influential and ambitious man who desires the honor for himself.
Otho bribes the fickle Praetorian Guard, already very unhappy with the emperor, to his side.
When Galba hears about the coup d'état he goes to the streets in an attempt to stabilize the situation.
It proves a mistake, because he can attract no supporters.
Shortly afterwards, the Praetorian Guard kills him in the Forum.
Otho is recognized as emperor by the Senate the same day.
The new emperor is saluted with relief.
Aulus Vitellius, consul in 48, and Proconsul of Africa in either 60 or 61, in which capacity he is said to have acquitted himself with credit, has, to the general astonishment, been appointed legate of Germania Inferior.
Vitellius has meanwhile made himself popular with his subalterns and with the soldiers by outrageous prodigality and excessive good nature, which soon proves fatal to order and discipline.
He owes his elevation to the throne to Caecina and Fabius Valens, commanders of two legions on the Rhine.
Through these two men a military revolution is speedily accomplished; they refused to renew their vows of allegiance to Emperor Galba on January 1, 69, and early in 69 Vitellius is proclaimed emperor at Cologne.
More accurately, he is proclaimed Emperor of the armies of Germania Inferior and Superior.
The armies of Gaul, Brittania and Raetia side with them shortly afterwards.
By the time that they march on Rome, however, it is Otho, and not Galba, whom they have to confront.
The district known as Sequania had formed part of Belgica under Augustus..
After the death of Vitellius, the inhabitants refuse to join the Gallic revolt against Rome instigated by Gaius Julius Civilis and Julius Sabinus, and drive back Sabinus, who has invaded their territory.
A triumphal arch at Vesontio (Besançon), which in return for this service is made a colony, possibly commemorates this victory.
The Fate of Julius Sabinus and Epponina: A Tragic End (78 CE)
Following the failure of the Lingones' revolt, their territory was detached from Belgic Gaul and placed under the direct military control of the Roman army on the Rhine. This reorganization led to its incorporation into the province of Germania Superior, ensuring that any future rebellious tendencies were carefully monitored by Roman forces.
Epponina’s Double Life and the Hidden Sabinus
- Epponina, the devoted wife of Julius Sabinus, lived a double life for many years, publicly mourning her "deceased" husband while secretly hiding him.
- Sabinus, having faked his own death after his failed rebellion, remained in hiding for nearly a decade, aided by Epponina and a handful of loyal supporters.
- Incredibly, Epponina traveled to Rome at one point, with Sabinus disguised as her slave, demonstrating her boldness and commitment to the deception.
- She even gave birth to two sons by Sabinus, raising a family in secrecy.
Their Arrest and Trial Before Vespasian (78 CE)
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Eventually, their deception was uncovered, and both Sabinus and Epponina were arrested and brought before Emperor Vespasian in Rome.
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Epponina pleaded for her husband’s life, but her appeals were ignored.
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When her pleas failed, she openly berated Vespasian, so much so that the emperor, angered by her defiance, ordered her execution alongside Sabinus.
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This act was widely condemned, even among Roman historians. Plutarch later wrote:
"In the whole of his reign no darker deed than this, none more odious in the sight of heaven, was committed."
(Plutarch, On Lovers)
The Fate of Their Sons
- After the execution of their parents, their two sons were separated as a form of punishment and control:
- One was sent to Delphi (Greece).
- The other was sent to Egypt, a common practice for the relocation of politically dangerous figures.
Legacy of Epponina and Julius Sabinus
- Epponina’s loyalty and sacrifice became legendary, symbolizing devotion, resistance, and tragedy in the face of Rome’s merciless rule.
- Their story was remembered as one of the most dramatic and heartbreaking examples of Roman political retribution.
- Even in death, Epponina and Sabinus' tale lived on, showing the personal cost of rebellion and the unforgiving nature of the empire toward its enemies.
Despite their tragic end, their story remains one of the most powerful examples of love and resistance in Roman history.
Vespasian’s Stabilization and Expansion of the Roman Empire (69–79 CE)
Following the chaos of the Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE), Emperor Vespasian (r. 69–79 CE) worked to stabilize and strengthen the Roman Empire through shrewd foreign policies and military expansion. His rule marked a return to stability, reinforcing imperial authority and securing Rome’s frontiers.
Romanization and Citizenship Policies
- Vespasian expanded Roman influence by granting citizenship to select towns, accelerating the Romanization of provincials.
- He focused on integrating conquered peoples into the empire, reinforcing local loyalty and economic stability.
- This policy helped transform Roman provinces into more stable and productive regions, ensuring long-term imperial cohesion.
Territorial Expansion and Military Campaigns
Vespasian’s reign saw several significant territorial expansions across the empire:
1. New Territories in Anatolia and Germany
- Vespasian annexed parts of Anatolia (modern Turkey), expanding Rome’s influence in the east.
- In Germany, he strengthened Roman control, securing the Rhine frontier and consolidating the province of Germania Superior.
2. Reinforcing Roman Rule in Britannia
- Vespasian reinforced Roman control in Wales, completing the conquest of the Silures and Ordovices.
- His governors launched new campaigns into Scotland, extending Rome’s northern frontier beyond the Hadrianic and Antonine Walls in later years.
- His policies laid the foundation for the later full-scale invasions of Caledonia (Scotland) under Agricola (78–84 CE).
Legacy of Vespasian’s Foreign Policy
- His pragmatic approach to provincial governance ensured loyalty and stability across the empire.
- His military expansions strengthened Rome’s borders, reducing the threat from external enemies.
- By the time of his death in 79 CE, Vespasian had restored order and set the stage for the stable rule of the Flavian dynasty, allowing Rome to thrive for another century.
Through careful diplomacy, military conquests, and Romanization, Vespasian solidified the empire’s dominance, ensuring Rome’s continued expansion and internal security.