Northern North America (2637 – 910 BCE): Copper and Slate, Salmon and Earthworks — Coast, River, and Desert Worlds

Regional Overview

From the Arctic sea-ice and salmon-flooded fjords of the North Pacific to the Great Lakes–Ohio valleys and the estuaries and deserts of the Gulf and West, Early Antiquity in Northern North America was defined by mobility, storage, and exchange.
Three great cultural theaters cohered without empire:

• the Northwest, where ASTt bands in the Arctic coexisted with ranked plank-house polities on the Pacific coast;

• the Northeast, where Woodland earthwork traditions and diversified river–coastal economies matured;

• the Gulf & West, where estuaries, deserts, and Pacific littorals linked seasonal camps into wide resource webs.
  Together they formed a continent-spanning mosaic of specialized ecologies joined by grease trails, canoe corridors, and reciprocity.

Geography & Environment

• Northwest: Arctic Alaska’s Kotzebue–Norton coasts, Brooks Range interior, Cook Inlet–Prince William Sound, Haida Gwaii–Central Coast, and the Fraser–Columbia plateaus.

• Northeast: Atlantic façade from Florida to Newfoundland, St. Lawrence–Great Lakes–Ohio–Mississippivalleys, Appalachian uplands, Hudson Bay rim, and the Eastern Arctic/Greenland margins.

• Gulf & West: Gulf wetlands and estuaries, Colorado and Central California valleys, Sonoran–Mojave deserts, and southern Rockies/Sierra piedmonts.

Environmental contrasts—ice-edge seas, temperate rainforests, prairie-woodland ecotones, and dune–playa basins—drove seasonal movement and regional specialization.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

Gradual late-Holocene cooling touched all three spheres.

• Arctic sea-ice regimes structured hunting windows but salmon runs stayed reliable.

• Northeastern woodlands stabilized around lake–river systems; coastal storms and estuarine productivity persisted.

• Gulf & West oscillated between wetland surges and desert drought pulses; Pacific upwelling anchored fisheries.
  Across the region, storage, multi-ecozone mobility, and trade redundancy were the principal buffers against climate variability.

Societies & Settlement

Northwest

• Arctic Small Tool tradition (c. 2500–800 BCE): microblade toolkits, small semi-subterranean houses, high mobility—precursors to later Paleo-Inuit/Thule systems.

• North Pacific Coast: ranked household polities in massive cedar plank dwellings controlled salmon weirs, canoe landings, and cedar stands; interior pit-house towns flourished along salmon canyons (Fraser/Columbia).

Northeast

• Early–Middle Woodland trajectories seeded by Late Archaic: Adena → Hopewell earthwork ceremonialism in the Ohio and allied river valleys; dense fisheries around the Great Lakes; shell-heap villages along the Atlantic.

• Horticulture expanded; maize diffusion began in the Midwest late in the span, complementing riverine stored foods.

Gulf & West

• Gulf Coast: shellfish- and fish-rich estuaries supported large middens and seasonal mound sites.

• Arid Southwest/Great Basin: early cultivation (squash, sunflower) complemented foraging; water storage and mobility were key.

• California: acorn economies, salmon fisheries, and Channel Islands–coast exchange linked beadwork, fish products, and obsidian.

Economy & Technology

• Metals: No bronze/iron industries; native copper cold-hammered in the Northwest and Northeast (Great Lakes copper sheets, NW Alaska awls/points).

• Lithics: Ground slate knives and points proliferated on the North Pacific; obsidian (Edziza) traveled inland; widespread projectile point traditions persisted.

• Boats: Skin boats and lamps in the Arctic; sewn-plank and dugout canoes on coasts and inland rivers; estuarine canoes in the Gulf and California.

• Food systems: smoking/drying racks, plank or pit granaries, and earth ovens generalized food storage across regions—the continent’s key resilience technology.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Grease trails carried eulachon oil from coastal inlets to interior plateau towns; copper, slate, and labret styles circulated along the Gulf of Alaska.

• Hopewell Interaction Sphere moved mica, obsidian, copper, marine shell among the Great Lakes–Ohio–Appalachian networks; coastal canoe routes linked Chesapeake–Delaware–Hudson–Gulf of Maine.

• Gulf & Pacific corridors joined estuaries to deserts and islands: shell beads, fish products, pigments, and lithics moved between California, the Channel Islands, and interior valleys; along the Gulf, canoe coasting tied river mouths into a common littoral.

Belief & Symbolism

• Northwest: first-salmon rites, sea-mammal ceremonies, and emergent crest/lineage identifiers in house art and grave goods.

• Northeast: earthwork cosmology—Adena/Hopewell mounds with astronomical alignments; carved pipes, copper sheets, and mica mirrors in mortuary assemblages.

• Gulf & West: shell ornaments, petroglyphs, and painted shelters; coastal and desert ritual emphasized water, game, and ancestral places.
  Across regions, feasting, exchange, and mortuary offerings cemented alliances and stabilized resource sharing.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Arctic & Subarctic: ice-edge scheduling + salmon storage; driftwood logistics; multi-habitat seasonal rounds.

• North Pacific Coast: ranked redistribution and stored salmon/eulachon oil smoothed shocks.

• Northeast: diversified woodland subsistence and inter-regional alliances buffered failure.

• Gulf & West: mobility between estuary, valley, and upland; water caching and drought-tolerant foraging; smoked/dried surplus against hurricanes and dry years.
  Storage + mobility + exchange formed a continent-wide triad of resilience.

Regional Synthesis & Long-Term Significance

By 910 BCE, Northern North America had matured into a tripartite cultural mosaic:

• Arctic ASTt traditions set the stage for Paleo-Inuit and Thule expansions;

• North Pacific ranked house societies and interior salmon towns approached their classic florescence;

• Woodland earthwork networks in the Northeast deepened, while Gulf & Western ecologies sustained diverse, specialized lifeways.
  Copper and slate innovation, canoe corridors, and ritualized exchange bound these worlds together—a continental infrastructure of knowledge and movement that would support the medieval transformations described in later-epoch chapters.

Western Branches of the Arctic Small-Tool Tradition

West of 110°W, Arctic Small-Tool groups spread across Alaska, the western Canadian Arctic, and the Bering Strait corridor. Like their eastern counterparts, they mastered microlithic technology and portable shelters, but local adaptations emphasized both inland and coastal hunting.

In Alaska, small-blade toolkits supported mixed economies: caribou, fish, and seals along coastal margins. Seasonal mobility linked river valleys to sea ice. These ASTt communities set the stage for later Choris, Norton, and Ipiutak traditions, and ultimately the florescence of the Old Bering Sea culture.

By 910 BCE, the foundations of western Arctic lifeways—flexibility, mobility, and cross-Strait connections—were firmly in place.

Northwestern North America (2,637 – 910 BCE) Metal Elsewhere, Copper & Slate Here — ASTt in the Arctic, Ranked Households on the Coast

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northwestern North America includes Alaska, western Canada (Alberta, British Columbia, Yukon and Northwest territory and Nunavut west of 110°W) Alaska, Washington State, northern Idaho, and the northwestern portions of Montana, Oregon, and California.

• Anchors: Western Arctic Alaska (Kotzebue Sound–Norton Sound), Brooks Range, Cook Inlet–Prince William Sound, Haida Gwaii–Central Coast, Fraser–Columbia plateaus.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

• Gradual cooling; reliable salmon cycles continued; sea-ice dynamics shaped Arctic foraging.

Subsistence & Settlement

• In the western Arctic, the Arctic Small Tool tradition (ASTt) (c. 2500–800 BCE) established small, mobile camps with microblades and finely made points—precursors to later Paleo-Inuit and Thule systems.

• Along the North Pacific Coast, ranked households with large plank dwellings consolidated control of weirs, canoe landings, and cedar groves; interior pit-house towns persisted.

Technology & Material Culture

• Native copper (NW Alaska/Interior) cold-hammered into awls, points; ground slate knives/weapons proliferated on coasts.

• Oil lamps, skin-covered boats in Arctic; heavy carpentry tools on coasts; labrets appear variably around Gulf of Alaska contexts.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Grease trails (eulachon oil) from inlets to interior; obsidian (Edziza) widely traded; Arctic driftwood routes supplied interior treelines.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Salmon and sea-mammal rituals matured; clan or crest-like identifiers emerged in house art and grave goods in some coastal zones.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Storage economies plus multi-ecozone mobility buffered climatic variability; copper/slate innovations improved cutting and sewing in wet–cold conditions.

Transition

On the eve of the 1st millennium BCE, the region juxtaposed mobile Arctic microlithic traditions with coastal ranked house societies and interior villages bound by grease and obsidian trails.

From ASTt to Old Bering Sea, Okvik, and Punuk

On the western side of the Arctic, innovation accelerated. By the second century CE, the Old Bering Sea culture flourished along the Alaskan and Chukotkan coasts and on the islands between. Its artisans created engraved ivory harpoon heads and tools, marrying artistry with maritime hunting of seals, walrus, and whales.

By the mid-third century, the Okvik culture emerged on the Punuk Islands, carving bold spirals and faces into ivory and developing a distinctive stylistic identity while continuing marine subsistence.

Finally, by the late seventh century, the Punuk culture spread across the Strait. Their subterranean houses framed with whale jawbones, and their focus on cooperative whale hunts, marked a major shift to larger, more permanent settlements and complex social life.

This west Arctic trajectory culminated in the maturation of the Thule tradition, which would soon expand eastward to reshape all of Arctic North America.

Northern North America (909 BCE – 819 CE): From Arctic Seas to Riverine Towns — The Deep Foundations of the Continent

Regional Overview

From the drifting pack ice of the Arctic Ocean to the salmon canyons of the Fraser and Columbia, and from the birch forests of the Great Lakes to the mounds of the Mississippi, Northern North America in the first millennium BCE through the early centuries CE formed a continental lattice of waterways, fisheries, and overland trails.
Across this vast region, societies diversified around the rhythm of rivers and the reach of coastlines — Arctic seal hunters, Pacific longhouse chiefs, Woodland farmers, and Plains foragers each adapting to their ecologies while linked through far-flung exchange.
By 819 CE, the northern half of the continent had achieved a remarkable cultural equilibrium: stable regional traditions, robust interzonal trade, and the institutional seeds that would flower into the Thule migrations, Mississippian towns, and Northwest Coast chiefdoms of the coming age.

Geography and Environment

Northern North America embraced the Arctic littoral, the North Pacific coast, the continental interior, and the temperate forests bordering the Atlantic.

• The Arctic and subarctic stretched from the Yukon to Baffin Bay, its coasts ruled by sea-ice cycles and river estuaries rich in fish and seals.

• The Northwest Coast offered mild, wet climates and dense conifer forests, sustaining some of the highest population densities north of Mesoamerica.

• The Interior Plains and Plateaus were threaded by the Mississippi, Missouri, and Columbia systems — arteries of migration and exchange.

• The Northeastern woodlands combined mixed farming with forest hunting, while the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence corridors linked interior and Atlantic ecologies.

Climatic variability shaped mobility rather than collapse: alternating warm and cool pulses adjusted the balance between farming and foraging, while vast ecological diversity ensured regional resilience.

Societies and Political Developments

Arctic and Subarctic Horizons

In the western Arctic, the Norton tradition (c. 1000 BCE – 800 CE) established semi-subterranean house villages, oil-lamp economies, and net fisheries across Alaska’s bays and rivers.
By the mid-first millennium CE, Birnirk innovations — sea-ice whaling, toggling harpoons, refined bone and ivory craft — emerged on the North Slope, setting the technological stage for the Thule expansion.
Inland, Athabaskan foragers managed caribou and salmon cycles through flexible band networks stretching from the Yukon to the Mackenzie.

The North Pacific Coast

Southward, the ranked longhouse societies of the Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian, and related peoples achieved a mature social hierarchy centuries before written history: hereditary chiefs, clan crests, and ceremonial redistribution through feast-traditions ancestral to the later potlatch.
Villages of massive cedar plank houses lined Haida Gwaii, the central BC fjords, and the Puget Sound.
Farther inland, Plateau communities along the Fraser and Columbia Rivers built pit-house towns near salmon canyons, tightly integrated with coastal exchange.

The Eastern Woodlands and Arctic Threshold

In the east, Late Woodland cultures consolidated from the Great Lakes to the Appalachians.
Fortified longhouse villages in Ontario and New York foreshadowed Iroquoian confederacies.
Southward along the Mississippi–Ohio system, mound centers continued the Hopewell legacy and anticipated Mississippian complexity.
On the Atlantic, shell-heap villages thrived from Chesapeake to the Gulf of Maine.
Farther north, Dorset Paleo-Inuit traditions persisted across the Eastern Arctic, with the coming Thule and, later, Norse Greenlanders still centuries ahead.

Economy and Trade

Across the region, economic life revolved around seasonal abundance and long-distance circulation.

• Arctic and Subarctic peoples balanced sea-mammal hunting, fishing, and caribou herding, exchanging furs, ivory, and stone for metal and wood from the south.

• Coastal chiefdoms specialized in salmon, eulachon oil, cedar timber, and carved prestige goods of copper and shell, exported inland along “grease trails.”

• Interior and Woodland farmers combined maize, beans, and squash with hunting and fishing; their towns became marketplaces for copper, obsidian, mica, and shell ornaments.

• River and lake corridors — Yukon, Fraser, Columbia, Mississippi, St. Lawrence — functioned as the highways of pre-Columbian North America, linking ecological zones into continental exchange.

Technology and Material Culture

Technological ingenuity was universal yet regionally distinct.

• Arctic engineers developed the qayaq and umiak, bone-framed sleds, toggling harpoons, and oil lamps for polar survival.

• Northwest Coast carpenters perfected adzes, chisels, and caulking for seaworthy canoes and monumental architecture.

• Woodland artisans produced cord-marked pottery, copper ornaments, and polished stone tools.

• Irrigation in the desert Southwest (to the south) influenced maize cultivation reaching the Lower Mississippi; meanwhile, storage pits, smoking racks, and plank granaries became standard food-security technologies across the temperate north.

Belief and Symbolism

Religious and ceremonial life bound ecology to ancestry.

• Along the Pacific Coast, first-salmon rites, crest art, and mortuary feasts articulated kin identity and ecological reciprocity.

• In the Woodlands, mound burials, clan totems, and cosmologies of the four directions organized both ritual and landscape design.

• In the Arctic, shamanic traditions mediated between human and animal spirits, honoring the souls of seals, whales, and caribou.
  Art, dance, and ritual reaffirmed the moral equilibrium between community and environment, making cosmology a practical guide for survival.

Adaptation and Resilience

Environmental diversity bred redundancy and cooperation.
Food storage, alliance marriages, and ritual feasting functioned as social insurance systems against famine or climatic shock.
Riverine and coastal corridors allowed mobility when drought, ice, or conflict disrupted one zone.
Technological convergence — woodcraft, metallurgy, navigation, and agriculture — produced a continental safety net of knowledge.

Regional Synthesis and Long-Term Significance

By 819 CE, Northern North America had matured into a web of complementary cultural systems:

• Arctic Norton–Birnirk foragers poised for the Thule transformation;

• Northwest Coast longhouse chiefdoms achieving classical complexity;

• Interior and Woodland farmers consolidating the Late Woodland world;

• Atlantic and Great Lakes peoples connecting interior and ocean through canoe exchange.

This mosaic — continental in scale yet locally precise — provided the infrastructure for the continent’s medieval efflorescence: Thule migrations across the Arctic, the rise of Cahokia and its mound-town network, and the flourishing of Northwest Coast monumental art.
In environmental and cultural resilience, Northern North America was already a mature world — one whose diversity and interconnection would shape the hemispheric story for centuries to come.

Northwestern North America (909 BCE – 819 CE) Norton and Birnirk North, Ranked Longhouses South — Toward Thule and Classic Northwest Coast

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northwestern North America includes Alaska, western Canada (Alberta, British Columbia, Yukon and Northwest territory and Nunavut west of 110°W) Alaska, Washington State, northern Idaho, and the northwestern portions of Montana, Oregon, and California.

• Anchors: Norton Sound–Kotzebue Sound (Norton tradition), Brooks Range–North Slope (Birnirk precursors), Cook Inlet–Prince William Sound, Haida Gwaii–Northern/ Central BC coasts, Fraser–Columbia–Plateau town belts, Puget Sound.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

• First-millennium variability; productive fisheries persisted; sea-ice season structured Arctic hunting.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Norton tradition (c. 1000 BCE–800 CE) in the western Arctic: large semi-subterranean houses, net fisheries, oil lamps, ceramics; broad marine–riverine economies.

• Late in the period, Birnirk elements (c. 600–1000 CE) appeared on the North Slope—specialized sea-ice sealing/whaling technologies—foreshadowing Thule.

• Coastal Northwest: fully developed ranked plank-house villages with hereditary house-lineages controlling fisheries, cedar, and canoe landings; monumental houses rose along Haida Gwaii and the Central Coast.

• Interior Plateau: dense pit-house towns leveraged salmon canyons (Fraser/Columbia), integrated with coastal exchange.

Technology & Material Culture

• Arctic: pottery, lamps, toggling harpoons, qayaq/umiak precursors; driftwood sledges; bone/ivory working refined.

• Coast: heavy adze/chisel carpentry; large sea-going canoes; shell-bead and copper wealth items; standardized net systems.

• Interior: ground-stone toolkits, fishing gaffs, storage bins.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Arctic: migratory arcs along sea-ice edges; Norton trade into interior for lithics and pyroclastics.

• Coast–Interior: eulachon “grease” trails ferried oil inland; obsidian and antler–horn moved coastwise.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• First-salmon rituals, whale/seal ceremonies, and crest/lineage art consolidated social memory.

• Mortuary diversity: house-area interments, formal cemeteries, and burial cairns.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Route redundancy (ice-edge, riverine, and coastal lanes) maintained flows under climatic oscillations; storage economies and social insurance (feasts, alliance marriages) offset shocks.

Transition

By 819 CE, Northwestern North America was a tripartite cultural mosaic: Norton/Birnirk Arctic societies poised for Thule expansion; ranked longhouse polities on the North Pacific Coast approaching their classic florescence; and interior plateau towns tightly integrated into salmon and grease-trail economies — a foundation for the medieval transformations already underway by 820–963 CE.

Northern North America (820 – 963 CE): Salmon Worlds, Woodland Mosaics, and Mound Horizons

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northern North America stretched from the Pacific fjords and salmon rivers of Alaska and British Columbia to the Great Lakes and Mississippi valleys, the Appalachian woodlands, and the Gulf–Southwest deserts and plains.

• Northwest: temperate rainforests and fjord coasts of the Pacific, merging with subarctic taiga and Arctic tundra.

• Northeast: broad river valleys, Great Lakes basins, Atlantic seaboard, and Greenland’s fjordlands.

• Gulf & West: the Mississippi and Arkansas basins, desert Southwest, and California’s coasts and oak savannas.

These varied landscapes sustained distinct yet interconnected economies of salmon, maize, and mound-building and sea-mammal hunting, all adapting to warming conditions as the Medieval Warm Period began around 950 CE.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Pacific coast: cool, wet regimes fostered vast cedar and hemlock forests; longer summers enhanced salmon productivity.

• Interior plains and woodlands: warmer, wetter centuries advanced maize cultivation into the Ohio–Mississippi valleys.

• Arctic and subarctic: seasonal sea-ice retreat improved marine hunting; inland caribou and moose herds expanded.

• Southwest: stable precipitation favored canal irrigation; California’s Mediterranean rhythm supported oak and marine abundance.

These conditions encouraged population growth, sedentism, and regional integration.

Societies and Political Developments

Northwestern North America

• Coastal chiefdoms—Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakwakaʼwakw, Coast Salish—organized into ranked lineages that controlled fisheries and ceremonial exchange (potlatch).

• Unangan, Sugpiaq, Yup’ik–Inupiat mastered sea-mammal hunting from the Aleutians to the Arctic.

• Athabaskan (Dene) bands coordinated caribou hunts and riverine fisheries inland.

• Villages of cedar plank-houses and monumental art expressed hereditary prestige; inland, leadership was merit-based and mobile.

Northeastern North America

• Woodland cultures (Iroquoian, Algonquian ancestors) practiced mixed farming, hunting, and fishing from the Appalachians to the Great Lakes.

• Mississippian precursors in the Ohio–Illinois valleys organized maize-based mound centers.

• Prairie societies blended bison hunting with riverine farming.

• Greenland Norse colonies formed late in this age (~985), linking the North Atlantic to European trade.

• Arctic Dorset peoples persisted before later Thule migrations.

Gulf and Western North America

• Lower Mississippi communities raised platform mounds at Plaquemine and Caddoan sites.

• Chaco Canyon (850–1130) blossomed with great houses, roads, and regional integration.

• Hohokam irrigators along the Salt–Gila rivers cultivated maize, beans, and cotton.

• Mogollon and Sinagua villagers farmed uplands; Chumash chiefdoms expanded their tomol canoe trade between the Channel Islands and mainland California.

• The Great Basin remained home to highly mobile foragers trading salt and obsidian.

Economy and Trade

• Coastal salmon economies: smoked and dried fish sustained dense settlements; eulachon oil circulated as prestige wealth.

• Fur, copper, and dentalium moved along interior–coastal trade paths linking Dene hunters and Northwest Coast carvers.

• Maize, beans, and squash supported mound-center surpluses; shell beads, mica, and copper traveled the Mississippi corridor.

• Southwest networks carried turquoise, macaws, and copper bells from Mesoamerica to Chaco; Hohokam exported cotton and shell jewelry.

• California distributed shell currency north and obsidian east; the Great Basin mediated salt and desert goods.

• Atlantic and Great Lakes trade moved copper, wampum-like ornaments, and marine shells over thousands of kilometers.

• Greenland exported walrus ivory and hides to Europe at the period’s close.

Subsistence and Technology

• Cedar architecture and canoes defined the Pacific coast; interior pit-houses and bark lodges housed Dene and Plateau peoples.

• Weirs, reef-nets, and wicker traps optimized salmon harvests; smokehouses and grease rendering secured surplus.

• Canal irrigation and terraced fields underpinned Hohokam and Chaco agriculture.

• Mound construction required coordinated labor and stored maize.

• Tomol plank canoes of the Chumash and skin-boats of the Arctic extended seafaring economies.

• Iron was unknown, but native copper, bone, stone, and wood technologies were highly refined.

Belief and Symbolism

• Northwest Coast cosmologies dramatized animal ancestors—Raven, Eagle, Wolf, Killer Whale—through masks, poles, and potlatch rites.

• Woodland mound cosmologies aligned earth, sky, and underworld in their architecture.

• Chaco’s kivas embodied solar and cardinal symbolism; astronomy regulated ritual calendars.

• California and Arctic shamans mediated between people and animal spirits; carved regalia and rock art memorialized transformation myths.

• Greenland Norse practiced pagan burial customs soon to yield to Christianity.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Multi-resource economies—salmon, maize, acorns, sea-mammals, and game—buffered environmental risk.

• Preservation technologies (drying, smoking, rendering oils) stabilized food supplies.

• Trade alliances and kin networks distributed surpluses and mitigated famine.

• Mobility: canoes, sleds, and foot trails ensured resource flexibility across ecological zones.

• Ritual redistribution (potlatch, feasts) converted surplus into prestige and diplomacy.

Long-Term Significance

By 963 CE, Northern North America had matured into a tapestry of salmon chiefdoms, woodland farmers, and desert irrigators connected by trade and shared ecological intelligence:

• Northwest Coast chiefdoms exemplified surplus-based artistry and ranked social orders.

• Woodland and Mississippian peoples advanced maize agriculture and mound ceremonialism.

• Chaco and Hohokam anchored southwestern urbanization, while Chumash maritime trade linked the Pacific rim.

• Across the continent, Dene and Inuit mobility, Atlantic mound-building, and Greenland colonization prefigured the continental complexity of later centuries.

These interwoven economies of salmon, maize, and monumental exchange formed the ecological and cultural foundations for the flourishing civilizations of medieval and early modern North America.

Northwestern North America (820 – 963 CE): Salmon Worlds, Cedar Civilizations, and Dene–Inuit Frontiers

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northwestern North America includes western Canada (the Yukon and British Columbia), Alaska, Washington, northern Idaho, and the northwestern portions of Montana, Oregon, and California.

• A mosaic of temperate rainforests, glaciated fjords, salmon rivers, and inside passages framed the Pacific littoral, while the subarctic taiga and tundra stretched inland across Alaska and the Yukon.

• Coastal societies clustered along the Gulf of Alaska, Alexander Archipelago, and Salish Sea; interior peoples ranged river valleys and high plateaus; Arctic communities occupied the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort coasts.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Cool, maritime conditions dominated the coast; inland, long winters and brief, productive summers shaped subsistence.

• The approach to the Medieval Warm Period (after c. 950) modestly lengthened ice-free seasons and supported robust salmon runs on major rivers (e.g., Fraser, Skeena, Columbia, Copper, Yukon).

• Sea-ice extent in the western Arctic fluctuated interannually, affecting seal and whale migrations.

Societies and Political Developments

• North Pacific Coast chiefdoms: Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakwakaʼwakw, and Coast Salish organized into ranked societies (nobles, commoners, slaves) anchored by house-lineages and winter ceremonial orders.

• Unangan (Aleut), Sugpiaq/Alutiiq, and Yup’ik–Inupiat communities specialized in sea-mammal hunting across the Aleutians, Kodiak–Prince William Sound, and Arctic coasts.

• Athabaskan (Dene) peoples (e.g., Gwich’in, Tahltan, Carrier, Kaska) maintained flexible band polities in the subarctic interior, coordinating seasonal caribou hunts and riverine fisheries.

• Leadership was situational inland (successful hunters, travel-masters) and hereditary–ritual on the coast (house heads who hosted potlatch distributions).

Economy and Trade

• Salmon surplus (smoked/dried) formed the coastal economic base, supporting dense villages and long ceremonial cycles.

• Interregional exchange moved obsidian, native copper, dentalium shells, furs, and carved wood among the coast, Columbia–Fraser plateaus, and the subarctic—linking Coast Salish, Plateau peoples, and Dene networks.

• Arctic and Gulf of Alaska routes circulated sea-mammal oil, seal/sea otter pelts, and ivory; inland trails moved chert, birchbark, and tanned hides between taiga and coast.

Subsistence and Technology

• Cedar plank-house villages, monumental posts, and carved crest panels characterized the coast; interior groups used pit houses, bark lodges, and seasonal camps.

• Dugout canoes (cedar) enabled open-water travel and trade; in the north, skin boats—qayaq (kayak) and umiak—excelled in sea-mammal hunting.

• Salmon harvests employed weirs, reef-nets, and wicker traps; smokehouses and grease rendering (eulachon/oolichan) secured winter stores.

• Composite harpoons with toggling heads, sinew-backed bows, snowshoes, toboggans, and microblade-derived tool traditions persisted inland.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• The Inside Passage threaded canoe travel from Southeast Alaska to the Salish Sea; coastal headlands served as trade and marriage-alliance nodes.

• River highways—the Fraser, Skeena–Bulkley, Columbia, Stikine, Copper, and Yukon—connected salmon fisheries to interior Dene trails and caribou grounds.

• Arctic littoral routes linked Kotzebue Sound, Bering Strait, and Norton Sound communities; portage chains bridged drainages between taiga and coast.

Belief and Symbolism

• Coastal cosmologies tied house-crests, clan histories, and animal beings (Raven, Eagle, Wolf, Killer Whale) into ceremonial performances and winter dances; prestige was distributed in potlatch feasts.

• Shamanic healing and spirit-guardian relationships guided hunting luck from the Kodiak–Aleutian chain to the Mackenzie Delta.

• Mortuary poles, memorial feasts, and carved regalia materialized lineage rights; interior Dene story cycles mapped rivers, passes, and animal migrations onto sacred geography.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Multi-resource scheduling—spring eulachon, summer salmon, fall deer/moose/caribou, year-round shellfish—spread risk across ecosystems.

• Food preservation (smoking, drying, grease) and communal labor in reef-net or weir fisheries produced stable surpluses for ritual economies.

• Kin-based trade alliances buffered local shortages and secured access to distant copper, obsidian, and dentalium sources.

• Mobility—canoe fleets on the coast, snow travel inland—allowed communities to pivot with climate and animal cycles.

Long-Term Significance

By 963 CE, Northwestern North America sustained complex, surplus-based chiefdoms on the coast and highly adaptive Dene–Inuit economies inland and Arctic. A web of canoe routes and river corridors integrated salmon, sea-mammal, and caribou landscapes into a single macro-region—an enduring foundation for the monumental art, ceremonial exchange, and wide-ranging trade that would define the centuries to follow.

Northern North America (964 – 1107 CE): Salmon States, Mound Metropolises, and Desert Irrigators

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northern North America stretched from the Gulf of Alaska and Haida Gwaii down the Salish Sea and Pacific coast to California, eastward across the Great Basin and Puebloan Southwest to the Mississippi–Ohio valleys, the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence corridor, and the Atlantic seaboard—and north to Greenland and the Canadian Arctic.
It encompassed:

• Northwest Coast and Subarctic/Arctic: Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakwakaʼwakw, Coast Salish; Dene (Athabaskan) interiors; Yup’ik and Inupiat Inuit; Unangan (Aleut) and Sugpiaq/Alutiiq.

• Northeast: Norse Greenland and Vinland outposts; Mississippian and Woodland centers from the St. Lawrence–Great Lakes to the Tallgrass Prairie; Iroquoian and Algonquian village belts; Old South/Appalachian chiefdoms; Thule expansion across the Arctic.

• Gulf & Western: Lower Mississippi, Cahokia’s wider sphere, Spiro, Etowah, Moundville; Chaco Canyon roads and great houses; Hohokam irrigation in the Sonoran; Mogollon–Sinagua towns; Chumash littoral polities; Great Basin foragers.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

The Medieval Warm Period (c. 950–1250) stabilized and in places lengthened growing and navigation seasons.

• Northwest Coast: heavy rainfall sustained massive cedar forests; salmon runs were reliable.

• Subarctic/Arctic: slightly longer ice-free windows increased whaling opportunities, though sea-ice variability remained high.

• Mississippi–Ohio valleys: warmth supported the maize boom and urbanization at Cahokia (c. 1050 onset).

• Colorado Plateau/Sonoran: Chaco (1050–1130 zenith) flourished within favorable precipitation patterns; Hohokam irrigation buffered aridity.

• California: oak savannas and coastal fisheries remained highly productive.

Societies and Political Developments

North Pacific Coast & Arctic
Stratified house-group chiefdoms on the coast managed ranked lineages, fishing/whaling grounds, and winter villages; potlatch intensified as theatrical redistribution of wealth and rights. Dene bands coordinated caribou/salmon circuits between taiga and rivers. Inuit developed large communal whale hunts and winter qasgiq ceremonial houses; Unangan and Sugpiaq organized maritime village clusters with leadership rooted in hunting prowess and boat building.

Northeast & Interior Woodlands
Norse Greenland stabilized farming and walrus-ivory exports; Vinland (Newfoundland) saw short-lived Norse ventures and conflict with local peoples. Cahokia emerged as a mound-metropolis with elite compounds, plazas, and woodhenges marking ritual calendars; Old South/Appalachian chiefdoms raised platform mounds. Iroquoianlonghouse communities and Algonquian riverine villages densified across the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence. On the tundra, Thule Inuit expanded eastward, replacing Dorset traditions.

Gulf & Western
Mississippian chiefdoms (Etowah, Moundville, Spiro) elaborated the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex; Spiro in the Arkansas Valley grew as a ritual–trade hub. In the Southwest, Chaco orchestrated a network of great houses, roads, and kivas; Hohokam enlarged canal systems and cotton/crop production; Mogollon–Sinagua towns persisted as mixed-farming communities. Along the Channel coast, Chumash intensified a bead-currency maritime economy; Great Basin societies deepened pinyon and exchange lifeways.

Economy and Trade

• Coast & Arctic: salmon surpluses (dried/smoked) underwrote population and ceremony; eulachon (oolichan) oil traveled inland along Grease Trails; native copper from Yukon/interior circulated as ingots and hammered regalia; dentalium shells moved north from California; ivory, baleen, and marine oils flowed through Dene and coastal brokers.

• Mississippian & Woodlands: maize redistribution centered on Cahokia; exchange of copper, shell gorgets, chert, ceremonial pipes; Great Lakes/Atlantic fisheries supported dense coastal and riverine communities. Greenland Norse exported walrus ivory to Europe.

• Southwest & California: Chaco networks trafficked turquoise, obsidian, macaws; Hohokam moved cotton, shell jewelry, and irrigation produce; Chumash circulated shell-bead currency, tying Pacific routes to interior markets; Great Basin moved salt and obsidian into Pueblo worlds.

Subsistence and Technology

• Northwest Coast: monumental cedar plank houses, crest poles, and raised granaries; large red-cedar dugout canoes for freight, warfare, and ceremony; smokehouses and oil-rendering vats for preservation.

• Arctic: qayaq and umiak, toggling harpoons, composite bows; sophisticated sea-ice knowledge.

• Dene & Interior: sinew-backed bows, birchbark canoes, snowshoes, toboggans; flexible river–taiga scheduling.

• Mississippi–Woodlands: earthwork engineering (platform mounds, causeways), woodhenges as calendrical devices, diversified maize–bean–squash regimes.

• Southwest: multistory great houses, road alignments, and kiva architecture at Chaco; canal engineering and cotton textiles among Hohokam.

• California: plank canoes (tomols) in the south, advanced fish weirs and acorn-processing economies; formalized bead production.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Inside Passage knit Haida Gwaii–Tlingit fjords–Kwakwakaʼwakw sounds–Salish inlets; Yukon and Copper Rivers linked Dene to coastal fairs.

• Grease Trails carried oolichan oil, furs, obsidian coast⇄plateau.

• Bering Strait enabled Inuit–Chukchi trans-Arctic ties.

• St. Lawrence–Great Lakes funneled goods between interior and Atlantic; Ohio–Mississippi corridors radiated from Cahokia.

• Chaco roads connected canyon centers to outliers; Hohokam canals concentrated production and exchange.

• Pacific littoral linked Chumash and northern neighbors via shell currency and canoe voyaging.

Belief and Symbolism

• Northwest Coast: clan crests (Raven, Eagle, Killer Whale, Wolf) encoded lineage titles and narrative rights; potlatch dramatized myth cycles and law.

• Arctic: whale/seal rituals honored prey spirits; qasgiq dances renewed communal bonds.

• Dene: shamanic guardians, vision quests, and narrative law aligned subsistence with morality.

• Mississippian: the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (birdman, serpent) expressed elite cosmology; Cahokia’s mounds and woodhenges synchronized ritual and polity.

• Southwest: kiva ceremonialism ordered time, space, and society; macaw/turquoise regalia symbolized distant connections.

• California littoral: Chumash cosmology elevated canoe chiefs as celestial navigators within a star-mapped sea.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Ecological scheduling: sequential harvests (salmon→eulachon→berries/deer; maize→nuts/fish; pinyon→game) spread risk.

• Preservation technologies (smoking, drying, oil rendering) created buffers against shortfalls.

• Redundant corridors—river, coastal, and road networks—re-routed flows during conflict or climate swings.

• Ceremonial redistribution (potlatch, mound-center feasts, kiva rites) translated surplus into social stability and intergroup diplomacy.

• Water/land engineering (Hohokam canals, Chaco roadworks, fish weirs) extended carrying capacity.

Long-Term Significance

By 1107 CE, Northern North America sustained three synergistic civilizational zones:

• A salmon-and-cedar coast of ranked chiefdoms and potlatch law, integrated with Dene interiors and Inuit Arctic whaling.

• A mound-metropolis heartland centered on Cahokia, radiating ceremonial, economic, and political influence across the Mississippi and Old South.

• A desert–littoral innovation belt where Chaco ritual economies, Hohokam irrigation cities, and Chumash sea commerce tied the interior to the Pacific.

Norse Greenland and brief Vinland contacts bookended the Atlantic frontier, while cross-continental exchange in copper, shells, oil, ivory, turquoise, and maize linked forests, plains, deserts, and seas. The balance of ritual prestige, ecological scheduling, and engineered landscapes laid a durable foundation for the monumental art, intensified warfare, and widening trade spheres of the 12th–13th centuries.

Northwestern North America (964 – 1107 CE): Salmon Surpluses, Potlatch Prestige, and Arctic Adaptations

Geographic and Environmental Context

Northwestern North America includes western Canada (the Yukon and British Columbia), Alaska, Washington, northern Idaho, and the northwestern portions of Montana, Oregon, and California.

• The Pacific littoral (from the Gulf of Alaska to the Salish Sea) supported dense coastal societies, while the interior plateaus and taiga–tundra zones hosted mobile Dene hunters and salmon fishers.

• The Bering Strait–Chukchi–Beaufort seas framed Inuit marine hunting worlds, linked east–west across Arctic waters.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• The Medieval Warm Period (c. 950–1250 CE) slightly lengthened ice-free seasons, stabilizing salmon runs and improving caribou pasture in the subarctic.

• On the coast, heavy rainfall sustained massive cedar forests; inland, warming cycles enhanced growing conditions in valley bottoms.

• In the Arctic, reduced but variable sea ice expanded whaling opportunities while exposing hunters to greater climatic swings.

Societies and Political Developments

• North Pacific Coast chiefdoms (Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakwakaʼwakw, Coast Salish):

  • Stratified lineages (house-groups) managed winter villages, ceremonial orders, and exclusive fishing/whaling grounds.

  • Potlatch feasts escalated in scale, redistributing surpluses (blankets, oil, carved regalia) and consolidating hereditary prestige.

• Aleut (Unangan) and Sugpiaq/Alutiiq organized into maritime village clusters in the Aleutians and Kodiak; leadership rested with expert hunters and boat-builders.

• Athabaskan (Dene) interior bands (Gwich’in, Carrier, Tahltan, Kaska) balanced caribou hunting with salmon fishing, shifting seasonally between riverine and taiga landscapes.

• Yup’ik and Inupiat Inuit extended across western and northern Alaska, coordinating large communal whale hunts (bowhead, gray) and winter ceremonial houses (qasgiq).

Economy and Trade

• Salmon surpluses (dried/smoked) fueled population growth and ceremonial distribution on the coast.

• Eulachon (oolichan) oil pressed from spring runs became a trade staple, carried inland as “grease trails” linking coastal and plateau peoples.

• Native copper from the upper Yukon and Alaska interior entered prestige economies, traded as ingots or hammered ornaments.

• Dentalium shells from coastal California circulated north into Salish and Haida territories as wealth symbols.

• Arctic ivory, baleen, and oil passed inland through Dene and coastal brokers.

Subsistence and Technology

• Cedar architecture: monumental plank houses, totemic crest poles, and storage platforms characterized coastal villages.

• Canoe technology: large red cedar dugouts carried freight and raiding parties across the Inside Passage.

• Arctic craft: qayaq (kayaks) for single hunters; umiak (skinboats) for groups; toggling harpoons and composite bows for sea-mammal hunting.

• Inland tools: sinew-backed bows, birchbark canoes, snowshoes, and toboggans sustained Dene mobility.

• Food processing: smokehouses, oil-rendering vats, and stone-lined roasting pits extended shelf-life of key resources.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• The Inside Passage remained a cultural highway, with canoe voyages linking Haida Gwaii, Tlingit fjords, Kwakwakaʼwakw sounds, and Salish inlets.

• Grease Trails carried oolichan oil, furs, and obsidian from coast to plateau.

• The Yukon and Copper Rivers tied Dene hunters to coastal trade fairs.

• Bering Strait crossings connected Inuit and Chukchi hunters in trans-Arctic exchange networks.

Belief and Symbolism

• Coast: clan crests (Raven, Eagle, Killer Whale, Wolf) embodied social contracts; potlatch ceremonies dramatized myth cycles and lineage rights.

• Arctic: whale and seal rituals honored prey spirits, ensuring their return; winter qasgiq dances renewed communal ties.

• Interior Dene: shamanic vision quests, animal-spirit guardians, and storytelling tied subsistence calendars to moral landscapes.

• Material culture—copper shields, carved masks, feathered regalia—embodied the spiritual charge of wealth and social rank.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Resource scheduling: sequential harvests of salmon, eulachon, sea mammals, deer, and caribou spread ecological risk.

• Preservation technologies (smoking, drying, oil rendering) buffered against seasonal shortfalls.

• Interregional exchange redistributed prestige goods and staples, insulating local communities from collapse.

• Ceremonial redistribution in potlatches converted surplus into social capital, stabilizing inequalities through spectacle.

Long-Term Significance

By 1107 CE, Northwestern North America sustained a flourishing coastal chiefdom complex alongside highly adaptive subarctic and Arctic economies. The coast was defined by salmon surpluses and potlatch politics; the interior and Arctic by Dene–Inuit resilience and cross-ecological trade. The region’s balance of ritual prestige, ecological scheduling, and exchange corridors created a stable foundation for later monumental art traditions, intensified warfare, and the expansive trade spheres of the high medieval centuries.