Inarus, the son of a Libyan prince named Psamtik, presumably of the old Saite line, holds a kingship over the Libyans from Mareia (above Pharos) and the part of the Nile Delta around Sais.

With help from Amyrtaeus, also from Sais, who takes the northern marshes, Inarus drives out the tax-collectors and collects mercenaries, thus starting a revolt in Egypt during the reign of King Artaxerxes I of Persia after the assassination of King Xerxes I.

The Carthaginians are alarmed by Timoleon's success and ship a large army to Lilybaeum.

According to Plutarch it numbered seventy thousand men and included siege engines and chariots with four horses each.

Their army is large enough to conquer Sicily in its entirety, even with the Greeks united under Timoleon.

When they receive news that their territory is being raided by Timoleon's mercenaries, they march against them immediately under the command of Hasdrubal and Hamilcar.

When the Syracusans hear about the coming of the huge Carthaginian army they are terrified; Timoleon can gather no more than three thousand of them to march against the Carthaginians.

While on the march, one thousand of Timoleon's four thousand mercenaries desert him and return to Syracuse.

He leads his army, now numbering five thousand foot and one thousand horse, on a march of eight days away from Syracuse towards the river Crimissus, where the Carthaginians are concentrating.

Diodorus Siculus reports a greater size of Timoleon's army, giving a number of twelve thousand men.

Timoleon is positioned on a hill with his army, overlooking a plain were the Carthaginian army is located, in early June 339 BCE.

The Crimissus river separates the two armies and covers the plain in a thick fog, making it impossible to see the Carthaginian camp.

However, the noise signals the Greeks that the Carthaginians are going to cross the river.

The sun has risen higher in the sky and dissipated the fog in the plain, making the Carthaginian troops visible.

The four-horse chariots are at the vanguard of the army.

Behind them is infantry, who the Greeks identify as Carthaginian citizens, and at the rear are the foreign troops.

Timoleon notices the army is separated by the river, giving him a good opportunity to attack.

He decides to send the cavalry ahead to prevent the Carthaginian citizen infantry from forming their phalanx.

Timoleon now commands his army to descend into the plain, assigning the other Sicilian Greeks and a few of his mercenaries to his wings.

He commands the center, which is composed of the Syracusans and his best mercenaries.

Seeing that his cavalry cannot attack the enemy infantry because of the chariots, he orders his cavalry to ride past the line of chariots to attack the infantry on the flank, then charges the enemy with the infantry.

The Carthaginian citizen infantry resists the Greeks sturdily however, thanks to their excellent armor and large shields.

Fortunately for the Greeks, a thunderstorm rises up behind them and starts a shower of hail and rain.

The storm hits the Greeks in the back and the Carthaginians in the face, putting the latter at a severe disadvantage: the water and mud makes them ineffective fighters because of their heavy armor.

To make things worse for the Carthaginians, the storm causes the Crimissus to overflow from its banks and many smaller streams to flow over the plain.

The Carthaginian army flees when the Greeks defeat the first rank of four hundred men.

Many of those who flee over the plain are overtaken by the Greeks and killed.

Some drown in the river when they meet the part of the Carthaginian army that still tries to cross the river.

Of the ten thousand casualties for the Carthaginian army, three thousand are Carthaginian citizens.

Carthage, having been used to employing Libyans, Numidians and Iberians for its armies, has never lost so many of its own citizens before because it At least five thousand prisoners are accounted for, and many more are hidden or stolen by the Greek soldiers.

As they strip the dead bodies of their armor and possessions, the Greeks acquire a great deal of gold and silver from the rich Carthaginian citizens.

After the Greek army captures the Carthaginian camp, so much effort is required to gather the spoils that it takes until the third day to erect a trophy on the site.

Diodorus Siculus, calling the Carthaginian citizen infantry as the Sacred Band of Carthage, puts their number at twenty-five hundred and states that they all fought to the death.

Of the other nationalities of the army, more than ten thousand have perished and fifteen thousand have been taken captive.

North Africa (333–190 BCE)

Carthaginian Dominance, Conflict, Reconstruction, Cyrenaic Stability, and Berber Continuity

Carthage’s Strategic Adaptation and the Punic Wars

From 333 to 190 BCE, North Africa experiences profound shifts driven by Carthage’s evolving geopolitical ambitions and subsequent military conflicts. Initially dominant, Carthage extends its hegemony significantly, maintaining naval supremacy and securing crucial Mediterranean trade routes, particularly around strategic colonies such as Leptis and Oea (modern Tripoli). The Punic civilization flourishes, integrating Berber communities economically and culturally through robust trade networks and sophisticated agricultural practices.

However, Carthage faces immense challenges during the First Punic War (264–241 BCE), triggered by rivalry with Rome over Sicily. Although initially holding its ground, Carthage ultimately succumbs, losing Sicily and paying heavy indemnities. The subsequent Mercenary War (241–237 BCE), arising from unpaid mercenary forces—including Berber soldiers who successfully seize control of much of Carthage’s North African territory and mint coins labeled "Libyan"—further destabilizes Carthage. Under the decisive leadership of Hamilcar Barca, Carthage regains control, yet its recovery is marred by Roman opportunism, notably Rome’s seizure of Sardinia and Corsica.

The Second Punic War (218–201 BCE), spearheaded by Hannibal Barca, significantly impacts Carthage’s geopolitical standing. Despite remarkable military campaigns in Italy, Hannibal’s eventual defeat at the Battle of Zama (202 BCE) severely cripples Carthaginian power, forcing it into substantial post-war reconstruction and diplomatic realignment.

Post-War Reconstruction and Diplomatic Realignment

Post-war Carthage faces heavy penalties, including loss of territories, naval limitations, and severe indemnities. Nevertheless, it demonstrates remarkable resilience by focusing intensely on agricultural and economic recovery, particularly in the productive North African hinterland. Key cities, especially Leptis and Oea, remain central to economic revitalization. Diplomatically, Carthage adopts cautious pragmatism, strategically repositioning itself to maintain stable relations with Rome and neutrality in broader Mediterranean affairs.

Cyrenaica’s Consistent Economic and Diplomatic Stability

Throughout this turbulent period, the Greek Pentapolis—Cyrene, Barce (Al Marj), Euhesperides (Benghazi), Teuchira (Tukrah), and Apollonia (Susah)—retains significant economic stability. Initially, the region welcomes Alexander the Great in 331 BCE, and after his death in 323 BCE, Cyrenaica is absorbed into the territories ruled by Ptolemy, a general under Alexander. The Pentapolis forms a federation typically ruled by a Ptolemaic king, bringing political stability through imposed constitutions due to internal governance challenges.

Economic and cultural prosperity remains robust despite political turbulence. Cyrenaica becomes wealthy through grain, wine, wool, stockbreeding, and notably Silphium, an herb unique to the region. Cyrene emerges as a prominent intellectual and artistic hub, renowned for its medical school, learned academies, and distinctive Hellenistic architecture. Additionally, the philosophical Cyrenaics, proponents of a doctrine equating happiness with human pleasure, flourish here.

Berber Economic Integration and Cultural Continuity

Berber communities—Caucasoid peoples speaking variations of a single Hamito-Semitic language, who identify themselves as “Amazigh” or "free men"—remain economically integrated within Carthaginian and Greek trade networks throughout these conflicts. Continuously adopting advanced agricultural, maritime, and artisanal techniques, Berbers sustain economic vitality in coastal hubs such as Oea (Tripoli). Inland Berber tribes preserve their autonomy, benefiting indirectly from prosperous coastal trade, reinforcing regional stability and cultural resilience.

Vibrant Cultural Exchange and Religious Syncretism

The interactions among Berber, Carthaginian, and Greek populations continue to flourish, fostering vibrant artistic developments in pottery, textiles, and metalwork. Religious syncretism deepens significantly, harmoniously blending indigenous Berber traditions with Phoenician and Greek religious practices, enriching regional cultural diversity.

Foundations for Sustained Regional Stability

By 190 BCE, despite significant military setbacks and geopolitical disruptions, North Africa achieves considerable political resilience and sustained economic vitality. Carthage’s strategic adaptation and diplomatic caution, Cyrenaica’s unwavering stability, and the ongoing integration and cultural continuity among the Berbers collectively secure regional cohesion and enduring prominence within the Mediterranean.

In the distribution of Alexander's empire after his death, Cleomenes, a Greek of Naucratis, had been left in Egypt as hyparch under Ptolemy, who puts him to death on the suspicion of his favoring Perdiccas.

The effect, if not also a cause, of this act is that Ptolemy comes into possession of the treasures of Cleomenes, which amount to eight thousand talents.

As satrap of Egypt, with the adjacent Libyan and Arabian regions, Ptolemy will methodically take advantage of the geographic isolation of the Nile territory to make it a great Hellenistic power.

He takes steps to improve internal administration.

Alexandria, which from its inception had been meant to embody its founder great idea of a fusion of races and cultures in his planned empire, seems to have included Jews among its earliest settlers.

The Jewish population will grow to be substantial, with an Jewish community well established in the city by the middle of the third century BCE.

Alexander had received divine honors following his death in Babylon both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities.

Kings in Macedonia by custom assert their right to the throne by burying their predecessor.

Ptolemy, to preempt Perdiccas, the imperial regent, has Alexander’s body brought to Memphis, Egypt and buried here in a gold sarcophagus.

Ptolemy now marries Alexander's mistress, Thaïs, and commences to reign as king of Egypt and the adjacent Libyan and Arabian regions.

The First Punic War, a twenty-year conflict between Carthage and the Roman Republic, waged in the Mediterranean Sea, Sicily, Sardinia, and North Africa, ends in 241 BCE in a Roman victory.

Sicily, except for the Greek Kingdom of Syracuse, becomes a Roman province.

An uprising of mercenary armies formerly employed by Carthage, backed by Libyan settlements revolting against Carthaginian control, begins the following year.

North Africa (249–238 BCE)

Carthaginian Defense, Mercenary Revolt, Cyrenaic Diplomacy, and Berber Stability

Carthaginian Maritime Defense and Adaptation

From 249 to 238 BCE, Carthage endures sustained pressure from the prolonged First Punic War with Rome. Despite facing escalating military and economic strain, Carthage successfully maintains critical naval defenses, safeguarding strategic Mediterranean trade routes and territorial integrity, particularly in northern Tunisia and vital colonies such as Leptis and Oea (modern Tripoli).

Economic alliances with Berber tribes in the interior continue to play a pivotal role, providing essential resources to support Carthaginian military and economic efforts. Prosperous coastal trade hubs, especially Tangier, remain vital, further integrating coastal settlements and inland Berber communities economically.

Strategic Diplomacy Amid Escalating Conflict

Carthaginian diplomatic strategies in this period become increasingly crucial as the war intensifies. Through careful and pragmatic alliances with Greek city-states and strategic engagements across the broader Mediterranean, Carthage seeks to alleviate the pressures of war, maintaining regional influence and preventing total isolation.

The Mercenary War and Internal Strife

The Mercenary War, also known as the Libyan War and Truceless War, erupts as a dispute between Carthage and its unpaid mercenary armies following the financially devastating indemnities imposed by Rome after the First Punic War. The mercenaries, initially demanding owed payments, seize Tunis and directly threaten Carthage, forcing the city to capitulate to their demands. However, the situation escalates dramatically when mercenary commanders Spendius and Mathos incite the Libyan conscripts to revolt, persuading them that Carthage intends retribution once foreign mercenaries are paid and dismissed. The resulting conflict quickly transforms into a full-scale rebellion, with various Libyan towns and cities backing the revolt. An unprepared Carthage, severely disadvantaged in terms of troops, finances, and supplies, suffers greatly in the early engagements of the war, particularly under the ineffective leadership of Hanno the Great.

Hamilcar Barca, returning from Sicily at the close of the First Punic War, initially holds together his mercenary troops through personal authority and promises of rewards. When his opponents among the governing aristocracy withhold payment, his soldiers mutiny, intensifying the Mercenary War. Facing dire circumstances due to previous aristocratic mismanagement, Carthage reinstates Hamilcar, whose superior strategy and significant personal influence quickly turn the tide. By 237 BCE, Hamilcar decisively crushes the revolt.

Rome, which initially treated Carthage honorably by releasing Punic prisoners without ransom and declining territorial offers from Utica and Sardinia, opportunistically seizes Sardinia and Corsica, forcing Carthage to pay an additional twelve hundred talents as compensation for their earlier refusal to relinquish claims to these islands. This punitive action by Rome becomes a significant grievance fueling future conflict, notably contributing to the motivations behind Hamilcar Barca’s subsequent military and diplomatic activities.

Cyrenaica’s Continued Economic and Diplomatic Resilience

The Greek Pentapolis—Cyrene, Barce (Al Marj), Euhesperides (Benghazi), Teuchira (Tukrah), and Apollonia (Susah)—maintains its economic resilience through stable exports of grain, fruit, horses, and particularly the medicinal plant Silphium. Cyrene sustains investment in civic and religious infrastructure, underscoring its ongoing autonomy and political stability.

Cyrenaica adeptly navigates shifting geopolitical tensions caused by the broader Mediterranean conflict, preserving its Greek cultural heritage and independence through careful diplomatic relations with neighboring powers.

Berber Economic Integration and Cultural Continuity

Berber communities persistently integrate into Carthaginian trade networks, continually adopting advanced agricultural methods, maritime practices, and artisanal innovations. Coastal economic centers, notably Oea (Tripoli), remain pivotal, supporting overall regional economic prosperity.

Inland Berber tribes maintain significant autonomy, upholding traditional governance and cultural identities. Their indirect engagement with prosperous coastal economies ensures continued regional economic stability and cultural resilience.

Rich Cultural Interactions and Religious Syncretism

Ongoing interactions among Berber, Carthaginian, and Greek populations further enrich regional cultural and artistic traditions, notably in pottery, textiles, and metalwork. Religious syncretism continues to deepen, harmonizing indigenous Berber beliefs with Phoenician and Greek religious practices, enhancing regional cultural complexity.

Enduring Stability Amid Geopolitical Challenges

By 238 BCE, North Africa demonstrates sustained political resilience, economic stability, and rich cultural interaction despite prolonged warfare and internal rebellion. Carthage’s adaptive maritime defense, Cyrenaica’s skillful diplomatic maneuvering, and consistent Berber economic integration collectively ensure the region’s continued stability and prominence in the Mediterranean.

The Mercenary War, also called the Libyan War and the Truceless War by Polybius, began as a dispute over the payment of money owed the mercenaries between the mercenary armies who had fought the First Punic War on Carthage's behalf, and a destitute Carthage, which has lost most of its wealth due to the indemnities imposed by Rome as part of the peace treaty.

The dispute grows until the mercenaries seize Tunis by force of arms, and directly threaten Carthage, which then capitulates to the mercenaries' demands.

The conflict would end here, did not two of the mercenary commanders, Spendius and Mathos, persuade the Libyan conscripts in the army to accept their leadership, then persuade them that Carthage will exact vengeance for their part in the revolt once the foreign mercenaries are paid and sent home.

They also persuade the combined mercenary armies to revolt against Carthage, and various Libyan towns and cities to back the revolt.

A hotly contested "labor dispute" thus explodes into a full-scale revolt.

An unprepared Carthage, heavily outmatched in terms of troops, money, and supplies, fares poorly in the initial engagements of the war, especially under the generalship of Hanno the Great.

The string of Roman naval victories, such as Mylae and Ecnomus, have given the Romans the confidence to make a direct attack on the Carthaginian stronghold of Lilybaeum, governed by Himilco.

The city is blockaded by a fleet commanded by the year's consuls, Publius Claudius Pulcher and Lucius Junius Paullus.

However, despite the acquired Roman naval experience, the Carthaginians are still superior in open sea maneuvering.

A small squadron led by a commander named Hannibal, son of Hamilcar, manages to break the siege in broad daylight and deliver supplies to the garrison of Lilybaeum.

In the night, Hannibal leaves he city carrying the useless cavalry horses and sails to the harbor of Drepana, before the Romans knew what was happening.

The success of the enterprise is so stunning that the Carthaginians repeat it several times, annulling the whole effect of the siege, since the garrison is being fed and kept in contact with Carthage.

Shortly after, a brave sailor, identified as Hannibal the Rhodian, openly defies the Roman fleet by sailing around the fleet in order to spy on the town and relay the news of the goings on inside of Lilybaeum to the Carthaginian Senate and the Carthaginian commander at the battle, Ad Herbal.

Pulcher, the senior consul, now decides to launch a surprise attack on the harbor of Drepana, where the defiant ships are garrisoned.

The fleet sails north from Lilybaeum in a moonless night.

Carthaginian scouts do not spot the Roman ships but low visibility conditions compromise the battle formation.

When they reach Drepana at sunrise, the fleet is scattered in a long, disorganized line with Pulcher's ship in the rear.

Punic scouts see the clumsy approach and the advantage of surprise is lost.

Ad Herbal orders the evacuation of Drepana before the blockade is unavoidable.

Carthage's ships thus sail out of Drepana, passing south of the city and around two small islands in the coast to the open sea.

Seeing the plan of a surprise attack fail, Pulcher orders his fleet to regroup into battle formation, but by this time the coast of Sicily is at his back and the Punic fleet ready for battle at his front.

Herbal sees a chance for victory and attacks, ordering his right flank to attack the rearmost Roman ships.

The result is an utter Roman defeat, with almost all ships commanded by Pulcher sunk.

Pulcher manages to escape and returned to Rome in shame, where he faces charges of treason.

Unlike the Carthaginians, Romans do not execute generals for incompetence.

He is convicted and sentenced to exile, with his political career finished.

In the same year, Hamilcar Barca leads a successful campaign in Sicily and a storm destroys the other half of the Roman fleet, commanded by consul Junius Paullus.

The situation is so desperate that Aulus Atilius Calatinus is appointed dictator and sent to the island to control the land warfare.

The Drepana defeat so demoralizes the Romans that they will wait seven years before building another fleet.

The Carthaginians have gained command of the sea after their victory in the Battle of Drepanum, but they only hold two cities in Sicily: Drepanum and …

…Lilybaeum.

Carthage at this time is feeling the strain of the prolonged conflict (in addition to maintaining a fleet and soldiers in Sicily they are also fighting the Libyans and Numidians in North Africa), and as a result, Hamilcar is given a fairly small army and the Carthaginian fleet begin gradually to be withdrawn.

Little is known about the Barcid family prior to Hamilcar Barca.

The names of his parents are unknown, and it is hypothesized that the family may have come from Cyrene and was part of the landed aristocracy of Carthage.

He is relatively young (thirty-three years old) when he receives the Sicilian command.

By this time he has sired three daughters, and his son Hannibal is born in the year that Hamilcar invades Sicily in 247.

Hamilcar is in command of a mercenary army composed of multiple nationalities and his ability to successfully lead this force demonstrates his talent as field commander.

He employs combined arms tactics, like Alexander or Pyhrrus, and his strategy is similar to the ones that will be employed by Quintus Fabius Maximus in the Second Punic War, ironically against Hamilcar’s eldest son.

The difference is that Fabius is to command a numerically superior army than his opponent and will have no supply problems, and have room to maneuver, while Hamilcar is static and has a far smaller army than his opponent.

Upon taking command, Hamilcar punishes the rebellious mercenaries (unruly because of overdue payment) by murdering some of them at night and drowning the rest at sea, and dismissing many to Africa.

With a reduced army and fleet, Hamilcar commences his operations.