Lotharingia, Duchy of
Substate | Defunct
903 CE to 959 CE
Lotharingia is a medieval successor kingdom of the Carolingian Empire, comprising the Low Countries, the western Rhineland, the lands today on the border between France and Germany, and what is now western Switzerland.
It is born of the tripartite division in 855, of the kingdom of Middle Francia, itself formed of the threefold division of the Carolingian Empire by the Treaty of Verdun in 843.
Neither Lotharingia nor Middle Francia have any natural coherence, but each is conceived as a territorial division of a larger realm.
In 870, Lotharingia, after a brief interregnum, is divided by the Treaty of Meerssen between its neighbors, East Francia and West Francia.
After brief wars in 876 and 879 West Francia cedes its half of Lotharingia to East Francia by the Treaty of Ribemont (880).
The Lotharingian aristocracy, in attempting to assert its right to elect a sovereign, joins the other East Frankish lands in deposing their king, Charles the Fat, in 887.
Under a series of dukes that begins under the child king Louis IV in 903, the Lotharingians frequently swap allegiance between the East and West Frankish kings.
In 939, the East Frankish king Otto I roings the reigning duke Gilbert to heel and incorporates Lotharingia into his realm as one of the "younger" stem duchies, whose dukes have a vote in royal elections.
While the other stem duchies are tribal or national identities, Lotharingia's identity is solely political.In 959, the Lotharingian duke Bruno the Great divides the duchy between Lotharingia superior (Upper Lorraine) and Lotharingia inferior (Lower Lorraine), giving each to the rule of a margrave.
Except for one brief period (1033–44, under Gothelo I), the division is never reversed and the margraves soon raise their separate fiefs into dukedoms.
In the twelfth century the ducal authority in Lower Lorraine becomes fragmented, causing the formation of the Duchy of Limburg and the Duchy of Brabant, whose rulers retain the title Duke of Lothier (derived from "Lotharingia").
With the disappearance of a "lower" Lorraine, the duchy of Upper Lorraine becomes the primary referent for "Lorraine" within the Holy Roman Empire.
After centuries of French invasions and occupations, Lorraine is finally ceded to France at the close of the War of the Polish Succession (1737).
In 1766 the duchy is inherited by the French crown and becomes the province of Lorraine.
In 1871, after the Franco-Prussian War, the German-speaking part of Lorraine is merged with Alsace to become the province of Alsace-Lorraine in the German Empire.
Today the greater part of the French side of the Franco-German border belongs to the Lorraine région.
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The Fragmentation of Middle Francia and the End of Viking Rule in Frisia (843–900)
Following the Treaty of Verdun (843), the Carolingian Empire is divided into three distinct kingdoms:
- West Francia → The precursor to modern France.
- East Francia → The precursor to modern Germany and Austria.
- Middle Francia → A weak and politically unstable kingdom stretching from Frisia in the north to Italy in the south, including the Low Countries.
Viking Control in Frisia (850–885)
- Around 850, Lothair I of Middle Francia, unable to defend his northern territories from Viking incursions, acknowledges Rorik of Dorestad, a Danish Viking leader, as ruler of most of Frisia in exchange for his nominal loyalty.
- When Middle Francia is partitioned in 855, the northern lands pass to Lothair II, forming Lotharingia.
- After Lothair II’s death in 869, Lotharingia is divided into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, with the Low Countries becoming part of East Francia in 870 (under the Treaty of Meerssen). However, despite this formal annexation, the region remains effectively under Viking control, as Frisian and Frankish towns are frequently raided.
The Rise and Fall of Viking Rule in Frisia
- In 879, another Viking leader, Godfrid, Duke of Frisia, launches new raids on the Frisian lands, further destabilizing Frankish authority.
- The inability of West and East Francia to maintain control over Frisia allows local noblemen to take up the fight against Viking rule.
- Among these rising local leaders is Gerolf of Holland, who emerges as a key figure in the struggle for power.
The End of Viking Rule: Gerolf of Holland and the Assassination of Godfrid
- In 885, Gerolf, alongside other Frankish nobles, helps assassinate Godfrid, marking the end of Viking dominance in Frisia.
- In recognition of his role, Gerolf assumes lordship over Frisia, further cementing the transition from Carolingian royal rule to local noble governance.
The Legacy: The Fragmentation of Lower Lotharingia
- With the decline of central authority and the failure of East Francia to enforce its rule, Lower Lotharingia begins to fragment into semi-independent feudal states.
- The power vacuum left by the Carolingians and the Viking invasions strengthens the territorial lords, paving the way for the formation of the medieval Dutch and Flemish counties.
- Over time, these emerging feudal domains—such as Holland, Flanders, Brabant, and Gelre—will form the foundation of the medieval Low Countries, ultimately shaping the region’s future as an independent political entity.
Thus, what began as Carolingian instability and Viking incursions in the 9th century ultimately leads to the rise of regional feudal states, setting the stage for the later development of the Netherlands and Belgium.
The Treaty of Meerssen (870): The Final Partition of Lotharingia
Following the death of Lothair II on August 8, 869, the fate of his kingdom, Lotharingia, becomes a matter of contention among the remaining Carolingian rulers. Although Lothair’s elder brother, Emperor Louis II of Italy, was his rightful heir, he is engaged in a military campaign against the Emirate of Bari and unable to defend his claim. Seizing the opportunity, Louis the German (East Francia) and Charles the Bald (West Francia) divide Lotharingia between themselves, formalizing the Treaty of Meerssen in 870.
Background: The Fragmentation of Middle Francia
- 843 - Treaty of Verdun: Lothair I receives Middle Francia, a long, narrow kingdom stretching from the North Sea to Italy.
- 855 - Treaty of Prüm: After Lothair I’s death, Middle Francia is divided among his three sons:
- Louis II → Italy (Imperial Crown).
- Lothair II → Lotharingia (Austrasia, Frisia, and Upper Burgundy).
- Charles of Provence → Lower Burgundy and Provence.
- 863 - Death of Charles of Provence: His lands are split between Lothair II and Louis II, further complicating territorial claims.
- 869 - Death of Lothair II: Lotharingia becomes a target for division between his uncles Louis the German and Charles the Bald, excluding Emperor Louis II from any inheritance.
The Partition of Lotharingia (870)
The Treaty of Meerssen effectively replaces the Treaty of Verdun (843) by dividing the northern half of Middle Francia between East and West Francia:
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Charles the Bald (West Francia) receives:
- The western part of Lower Burgundy, including Lyon, Vienne, Vivarais, and Uzès.
- A small portion of Upper Burgundy, including Portois and Varais (Besançon), securing a route toward Italy.
- The western half of Lotharingia, forming a new Frankish frontier against Viking incursions.
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Louis the German (East Francia) receives:
- Most of Austrasia, including the key cities of Aachen and Metz.
- Most of Frisia, though large portions remain under Viking control and are only claimed on paper.
- Most of Upper Burgundy, joining it with Louis the Younger’s subkingdom of eastern Austrasia.
- Preventing Charles the Bald from reclaiming his family’s ancestral holdings in Lotharingia, reinforcing East Frankish dominance in the region.
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Lothair II’s illegitimate son, Hugh, is granted the Duchy of Alsace, but his claim to power remains tenuous.
Impact of the Treaty of Meerssen
- The dissolution of Lotharingia → The treaty permanently fragments Lotharingia, making it a contested region between East and West Francia for centuries.
- Exclusion of Emperor Louis II → The fact that Louis II of Italy receives no part of his brother’s landsweakens his imperial claim, ensuring that Italy remains separate from Francia.
- Strengthening of East Francia → With the addition of Austrasia, Frisia, and Upper Burgundy, Louis the German’s realm grows significantly, consolidating the foundations of what will become Germany.
- Charles the Bald’s expansion into Burgundy → Although weaker than his brother, Charles now secures an Alpine route to Italy, a move that will later aid his imperial ambitions.
- Rise of Regional Power Struggles → The Carolingian rulers’ inability to maintain unity leads to increased feudal fragmentation, paving the way for the rise of independent duchies and local rulers.
Conclusion: The Carolingian Empire Moves Toward Disintegration
The Treaty of Meerssen (870) marks the last major territorial division of the Carolingian Empire, further weakening its imperial structure. With Lotharingia divided and contested, East and West Francia become separate political entities, setting the stage for the eventual formation of medieval France and Germany. Though nominally still part of the Carolingian realm, the empire continues to unravel, as Viking invasions, feudal decentralization, and dynastic disputes erode central authority.
Charles, childless by his marriage to Richgard, tries to have his illegitimate son by an unknown concubine, Bernard, recognized as his heir in 885, but meets the opposition of several bishops.
He has the support of Pope Adrian III, whom he invites to an assembly in Worms in October 885, but who dies on the way, just after crossing the river Po.
Adrian was going to depose the obstructing bishops, as Charles doubted he could do this himself, and legitimize Bernard.
Based on the unfavoring attitude of the chronicler of the Mainz continuation of the Annales Fuldenses, the chief of Charles's opponents in the matter was probably Liutbert, Archbishop of Mainz.
Because Charles had called together the "bishops and counts of Gaul" as well as the pope to meet him at Worms, it seems likely that he planned to make Bernard King of Lotharingia.
Having set about to try again after the failure of his first attempt, Charles has had the term proles (offspring) inserted into his charters as it had not been in previous years, probably because he desires to legitimize Bernard.
Charles had met the new Pope, Stephen V, in early 886 and had probably negotiated for the recognition of his son as his heir.
An assembly had been planned for April and May of the next year at Waiblingen.
Pope Stephen cancels his planned attendance on April 30, 887.
Berengar, who by a brief feud with Liutward had lost the favor of the emperor, arrives at Waiblingen in early May 887, makes peace with the emperor, and compensates for the actions of the previous year by dispensing great gifts.
Charles the Fat had probably abandoned his plans for Bernard and instead adopted Louis of Provence as his son at an assembly at Kirchen in May.
It is possible, however, that the agreement with Louis was only designed to engender support for Bernard's subkingship in Lotharingia.
In June or July, Berengar arrived in Kirchen, probably pining to be declared Charles's heir; he may in fact have been so named in Italy, where he will be acclaimed (or make himself) king immediately after Charles's deposition in 887.
Odo, Count of Paris, may have had a similar purpose in visiting Charles at Kirchen.
On the other hand, the presence of these magnates at these two great assemblies may merely have been necessary to confirm Charles' illegitimate son as his heir (Waiblingen), a plan which failed when the pope refused to attend, and then to confirm Louis instead (Kirchen).
The Magyars raid Alsace in 917.
Magyar Raid on Alsace (917): The Eastern Frankish Kingdom Under Attack
In 917, the Magyars, nomadic warriors from the Hungarian plains, launch a raid into Alsace, continuing their devastating incursions into East Francia. This attack is part of a broader wave of Magyar invasions that threaten the crumbling Carolingian realm in the early 10th century.
Context: The Magyar Raids into East Francia
- The Magyars had emerged as a dominant force in Central Europe, taking advantage of the fragmentation of East Francia following the death of Louis the Child (911).
- Lacking a strong central ruler, East Francia was vulnerable to external attacks, and the Magyars frequently raided into Bavaria, Swabia, and Lotharingia.
- The raid on Alsace in 917 follows previous incursions into Germany, Italy, and Burgundy, as the Magyars exploit weak defenses along the Rhine frontier.
The Raid on Alsace
- The Magyars, known for their swift horse-mounted warfare, penetrate deep into Alsace, targeting towns, monasteries, and trade routes.
- The raiders plunder villages and religious sites, taking slaves and loot before retreating to their strongholds in the Hungarian plains.
- The East Frankish nobility struggles to mount a coordinated defense, as the kingdom is divided among powerful dukes, each focused on securing their own territories.
Consequences of the 917 Magyar Raid
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Continued Weakness of East Francia
- The raid highlights the vulnerability of the eastern frontier, as local rulers fail to repel the invaders effectively.
- The Carolingian system of decentralized rule makes a unified military response difficult, allowing the Magyars to raid almost at will.
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The Need for Stronger Defenses
- The attacks lead to greater reliance on local ducal leadership, particularly in Bavaria, Swabia, and Franconia, which begin to fortify their regions.
- This foreshadows the rise of the Ottonian dynasty, which will later develop military strategies to counter the Magyar threat.
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Prelude to Further Magyar Raids
- The Magyar raid of 917 is one of many incursions into East Francia and signals continued instability in the region.
- Their attacks will intensify throughout the 920s and 930s, culminating in the Battle of Lechfeld in 955, where they will finally be defeated by Otto I of Germany.
Conclusion: The Growing Magyar Threat
The 917 raid on Alsace demonstrates the ongoing weakness of the East Frankish kingdom, which is unable to effectively resist the Magyars. The fragmentation of Carolingian authority ensures that these raids will continue, pushing East Francia toward military reform and centralized ducal leadership, ultimately paving the way for the rise of the Holy Roman Empire.
The Decline of Charles the Simple’s Rule and the Rise of Opposition (917–919)
By 917–919, the reign of Charles the Simple, King of West Francia, is increasingly undermined by internal discontent among the nobility. His favoritism toward Hagano, a petty noble of Lotharingian origin and a relative of his first wife, Frederuna, creates widespread resentment among the aristocracy.
The Rise of Hagano and Noble Resentment
- Hagano gains Charles' favor following the death of Queen Frederuna in 917, despite being of minor noble status (mediocris).
- By 918, he is the king’s most trusted advisor, wielding influence over court politics and royal patronage.
- The West Frankish aristocracy despises him, largely because Charles begins transferring monastic beneficesfrom powerful nobles to Hagano, thereby weakening their influence.
- This results in Charles losing noble support, making him increasingly isolated and unable to effectively rule.
The Breakdown of Royal Authority (919)
- The nobility’s dissatisfaction culminates in open defiance in 919, when the West Frankish barons refuse to aid Charles in repelling a Magyar invasion.
- Lotharingian discontent grows, and one of its most powerful nobles, Gilbert (son of Reginar I of Hainaut), shifts his loyalty to Henry the Fowler, King of East Francia.
- According to Flodoard, Gilbert is even elected "prince" (princeps) by the Lotharingian aristocracy, effectively removing Lotharingia from Charles’ control.
- Robert of Neustria, another leading noble, makes an independent treaty with the Vikings, ignoring the king’s authority.
The Beginning of the End for Charles the Simple
- Charles’ alienation of the nobility, particularly by favoring Hagano at their expense, leads to his inability to govern effectively.
- His weakening authority paves the way for open rebellion, and within a few years, his rule will collapse entirely.
- Lotharingia is lost to Henry the Fowler, and West Francia itself becomes unstable, setting the stage for dynastic conflict.
Conclusion: A King Undone by Favoritism and Noble Defiance
Charles the Simple’s loyalty to Hagano and his willingness to alienate his powerful vassals cost him both Lotharingia and the support of the West Frankish nobility. His failure to unite his realm against external threats, including the Magyars and Vikings, ensures that his downfall is only a matter of time.
Robert of Neustria: Guardian of Northern Francia and the Rise of the Robertians (866–921)
Robert of Neustria, born in 866, was the posthumous son of Robert the Strong, Count of Anjou, and the younger brother of King Odo of West Francia. As a leading Frankish noble, he played a crucial role in defending northern Francia from Viking incursions, ultimately setting the stage for the rise of the Capetian dynasty.
Background and Early Career
- Robert’s family, the Robertians, emerged as one of the most powerful noble houses in West Francia, with Paris as their center of power.
- Robert was present at the Siege of Paris in 885, fighting alongside his brother, Odo, against the Viking invasion.
- When Odo became king in 888, he appointed Robert as the ruler of several counties, including Paris, and granted him control over important abbeys.
- Robert also held the prestigious title of Dux Francorum (Duke of the Franks), making him one of the most powerful military commanders in the kingdom.
Loyalty to Charles the Simple (898–921)
- When Odo died in 898, Robert did not claim the West Frankish throne, instead recognizing Charles the Simple as king.
- In return for his loyalty, Charles confirmed Robert in his titles and lands, allowing him to continue his military campaigns against the Vikings.
- As Duke of the Franks, Robert defended northern Francia, leading several victories against Norse invaders.
Robert’s Victory Against the Vikings (921)
- In 921, Robert led an army against a large band of Norse raiders in the Loire Valley, delivering a decisive victory.
- Following their defeat, the Vikings converted to Christianity and settled near Nantes, further integrating Norse elements into West Francia.
- This victory enhanced Robert’s reputation, cementing his status as the kingdom’s foremost defender.
Tensions with Charles the Simple (921 Onward)
- The peace between Robert and Charles remains intact until about 921, when tensions begin to rise.
- Charles, increasingly influenced by his unpopular favorite, Hagano, alienates his nobles, including Robert.
- As Robert’s influence grows, his relationship with Charles deteriorates, setting the stage for conflict between the king and his most powerful vassal.
Legacy and the Rise of the Robertians
- Robert’s leadership in defending Francia from Viking incursions strengthens the Robertian dynasty, which will later culminate in the establishment of the Capetian monarchy in 987.
- His victories over the Norse, particularly in 921, showcase the declining power of the Carolingian kings and the increasing dominance of regional rulers like the Robertians.
- His eventual break with Charles the Simple will lead to open conflict, altering the course of West Frankish history.
Thus, by 921, Robert of Neustria stands as the most powerful noble in West Francia, a loyal defender of the kingdom but also a potential rival to Carolingian rule, foreshadowing the power struggles that will define the future of medieval France.
The Revolt Against Charles the Simple (922): The Breaking Point
By 922, Charles the Simple has increasingly alienated his West Frankish nobles, particularly through his favoritism toward Hagano, a low-ranking Lotharingian noble who had become his closest advisor. The final straw comes when Charles grants the town of Chelles to Hagano, despite the fact that it is already held by Rothilde, daughter of Charles the Bald, prompting the nobility to rise in rebellion.
Growing Resentment Among the Nobility
- Hagano’s influence at court has been a source of noble discontent for years, as Charles granted him monastic benefices and lands at the expense of powerful lords.
- The loss of Richard of Burgundy in 921, one of Charles’ most loyal supporters, further weakens royal authority, leaving Charles politically vulnerable.
- The grant of Chelles to Hagano in 922—directly infringing on Rothilde’s holdings—is seen as an unjust violation of noble rights.
The West Frankish Revolt Against Charles (922)
- Enraged by Hagano’s growing power, the West Frankish barons rise in open rebellion against Charles.
- This revolt is not merely about Chelles, but a culmination of Charles’ alienation of the nobility.
- Charles now faces a full-scale aristocratic uprising, led by Robert of Neustria, the younger brother of King Odo and the most powerful noble in West Francia.
Consequences of the Revolt
- Charles' authority collapses as more nobles join Robert of Neustria, who is soon proclaimed king in opposition to Charles.
- This leads to the final confrontation between the Carolingians and the Robertians, marking a major turning point in the decline of Carolingian rule.
- With the loss of noble support, Charles’ reign is effectively doomed, paving the way for his eventual capture and imprisonment in 923.
Conclusion: The Beginning of the End for Carolingian Rule in West Francia
Charles’ favoritism toward Hagano, coupled with his alienation of the nobility, directly leads to his overthrow in 922. With Robert of Neustria rising in rebellion, the Carolingian dynasty in West Francia is on the brink of collapse, setting the stage for dynastic change and the transition to the Capetian era.