West Central Europe (820 – 963 CE): Carolingian Legacies, Lotharingian Marches, and the Rhineland River Economy

Geographic and Environmental Context

West Central Europe includes modern Germany west of 10°E and the far northwest of Switzerland (Basel and the eastern Jura).

• Anchors: the Middle and Upper Rhine corridor (Cologne, Mainz, Worms, Speyer, Bonn, Trier, Basel), the Moselle valley (Trier), the Main valley (Frankfurt, Würzburg), and the Basel–eastern Jura hinge to Burgundy.

Climate and Environmental Shifts

• Cool-temperate conditions with ample rainfall supported cereals on river terraces and viticulture on south-facing slopes of the Rhine and Moselle.

• From the mid-10th century, the onset of the Medieval Warm Period modestly lengthened growing seasons and navigation windows, aiding vineyards, hay meadows, and river traffic.

Societies and Political Developments

• Carolingian fragmentation (843–888):

  • The Treaty of Verdun (843) split the empire; the Rhineland oscillated between East Francia and Middle Francia → Lotharingia.

  • Powerful archbishoprics (Mainz, Trier, Cologne) and great abbeys held fiscal immunities and military duties, stabilizing governance as comital lordship proliferated.

• Lotharingian question (9th–10th c.):

  • Repeated partitions (Meerssen 870, Ribbemont 880) shuffled frontiers; cities like Aachen, Cologne, and Mainz mediated royal claims and border defense.

• Ottonian consolidation (919–963):

  • Henry I “the Fowler” (919–936) stabilized East Francia;

  • Otto I (936–973) curbed ducal autonomy, relied on imperial bishops, and defeated the Magyars at Lechfeld (955)—a victory that secured Bavarian and Rhenish hinterlands and restored long-distance commerce.

  • Otto’s imperial coronation (962/963) reaffirmed Rhineland preeminence in imperial ceremony, law, and church politics.

• Urban–ecclesiastical power:

  • Aachen remained a symbolic Carolingian capital;

  • Cologne, Mainz, and Trier emerged as archiepiscopal kingmakers;

  • Worms and Speyer developed as Salian-linked royal centers;

  • Basel guarded the Upper Rhine and Alpine approaches.

Economy and Trade

• Agrarian base: rye, wheat, barley, and oats on loess; vineyards along the Rhine/Moselle; cattle and swine in riverine meadows and oak woods.

• Rhine river economy: the Rhine served as Europe’s main north–south artery, moving wine, grain, millstones, timber, salt, and ceramics; Moselle and Main tributaries fed regional markets.

• Tolls & fairs: episcopal and comital toll stations at bridges and fords funded defense; periodic markets in Aachen, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, Speyer, Trier, and Basel tied local and long-haul trade.

• Monetization: Carolingian deniers and later Ottonian denarii circulated from Rhineland mints; church treasuries and royal pfalzen concentrated bullion for payments and patronage.

Subsistence and Technology

• Heavy plow (carruca) and ox/horse traction extended deep tillage on heavy soils; three-field rotations appeared on richer estates.

• Water-mills multiplied on tributary streams; river fish weirs provisioned towns.

• Viticultural tech: terracing, stone revetments, presses, and cooperage (barrel-making) professionalized wine output.

• Shipcraft & roadways: flat-bottomed river barges and clinker-built boats plied the Rhine; causeways and fords at Cologne, Mainz, and Basel linked overland routes to the river system.

• Fortifications: timber-earth burgs and city walls expanded around episcopal seats and royal palaces; bridgeheads became militarized checkpoints.

Movement and Interaction Corridors

• Middle Rhine (Bingen–Koblenz–Cologne): wine and metalware downriver, salt and cloth upriver.

• Upper Rhine–Alsace–Basel: interface to Alpine passes (via Basel/Jura) toward Burgundy and Italy.

• Moselle–Saar: Trier’s hinterland and wine route to the Lower Rhine.

• Trans-Meuse/Lotharingian roads: linked Rhineland markets to Flanders and the North Sea.

Belief and Symbolism

• Latin Christianity structured rulership: the archbishops of Mainz, Trier, Cologne served as royal advisors and later imperial electors; cathedral schools fostered learning and scriptoria.

• Monastic reform currents (e.g., Gorze, precursors to Cluny) energized discipline and estate management; reliquary cults drew pilgrims, reinforcing urban prestige.

• Royal ritual: imperial assemblies and synods in Rhineland cities showcased the fusion of sacral kingship with episcopal authority.

Adaptation and Resilience

• Jurisdictional layering—bishops, abbots, counts—spread risk and ensured continuity when dynasties faltered.

• River redundancy: when overland routes were insecure, merchants shifted to the Rhine; when war threatened a reach, tributary detours and fairs kept exchange flowing.

• Food-rent & tithe systems buffered markets against poor harvests; monastic granaries and urban storehouses stabilized provisioning.

Long-Term Significance

By 963 CE, West Central Europe had reemerged as the imperial and commercial heart of the German kingdom:

• A Rhineland episcopal axis (Aachen–Cologne–Mainz–Trier) anchored Ottonian power;

• Wine-and-river trade linked Alpine, Burgundian, and North Sea economies;

• Urban centers from Basel to Cologne consolidated tolls, crafts, and ecclesiastical authority.
  These arrangements—imperial-episcopal governance, Rhine logistics, and viticultural surplus—set the stage for the 10th–11th-century urban and ecclesiastical boom that would define the high medieval Rhineland.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (844–855 CE): Intellectual Flourishing in Rome and Jewish Cultural Center in Lucena

The era 844–855 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe sees significant intellectual developments in Rome, facilitated by cultural ties to the East, alongside the consolidation of Jewish cultural life in Al-Andalus.

Intellectual Revival in Ninth-Century Rome

During this era, Rome experiences a notable intellectual revival, greatly influenced by its cultural connections with the Greek-speaking East and the Frankish courts. Figures such as Anastasius the Librarian (d. c. 878 CE) emerge as prominent international scholars, bridging Eastern and Western intellectual traditions. Anastasius, known for his erudition and diplomatic connections, symbolizes Rome’s renewed significance as a vibrant intellectual hub during the ninth century.

Lucena: Center of Andalusian Jewry

In Al-Andalus, the city of Lucena, reputedly founded by Jews centuries earlier, reaches prominence as the foremost cultural center of Andalusian Jewry by the mid-ninth century. Known for its scholarly and religious achievements, Lucena emerges as a unique all-Jewish city under Muslim rule, fostering a rich intellectual tradition and significantly influencing Jewish life throughout the Islamic world.

Continued Cultural Interaction and Religious Pluralism

Throughout Iberia, the coexistence and interaction among Jews, Mozarabs, and Muslims remain vibrant, facilitating cultural exchange and intellectual growth. Lucena’s prominence highlights the integral role of Jewish communities in maintaining scholarship, commerce, and intercultural dialogue within the broader context of Islamic Iberia.

Carolingian Stability and Papal Influence

In Italy, Carolingian governance under Lothair I maintains relative stability following the Treaty of Verdun (843 CE), though political fragmentation increasingly characterizes the broader Carolingian Empire. The papacy retains significant authority, continuing its diplomatic role and reinforcing Rome's intellectual vitality through active engagement with Eastern traditions and Frankish influences.

Economic Prosperity and Technological Continuity

Economic activity across Mediterranean Southwest Europe benefits from ongoing technological developments such as the widespread use of the Catalan forge. Continued enhancements in iron production support agricultural productivity, military strength, and urban craftsmanship, underpinning regional stability and prosperity.

Legacy of the Era

The era 844–855 CE is marked by significant cultural and intellectual developments, particularly the intellectual revival in Rome and Lucena's prominence as a center of Jewish culture. These developments underscore the vibrant multicultural interactions defining the region’s historical trajectory during the ninth century.

The Creation of Lotharingia (855): Emperor Lothair I’s Final Act

In 855, Emperor Lothair I, ruler of Middle Francia, decides to divide his kingdom among his sons before abdicating and retiring to the monastery of Prüm, where he dies soon after. His decision permanently fragments the Middle Kingdom, creating new political entities that will shape the future of medieval Europe.

The Division of Middle Francia

Lothair I's empire is split among his three sons:

1. Louis II → Receives Italy, inheriting the imperial title and the crown of Lombardy.
2. Lothair II → Inherits the northern part of Middle Francia, including Alsace-Lorraine and much of the present-day Low Countries.
3. Charles of Provence → Takes control of Provence, which extends from Burgundy to the Mediterranean coast.

The Birth of Lotharingia

• The realm of Lothair II comes to be known as Lotharingia, named after him.
• It stretches from the North Sea to the Alps, including key territories such as:
  • Frisia (modern Belgium and the Netherlands).
  • Alsace-Lorraine (a contested region between France and Germany for centuries).
  • Burgundy and Upper Lorraine.
• Unlike West Francia (France) and East Francia (Germany), which develop into stable medieval kingdoms, Lotharingia remains politically unstable, frequently contested by France and Germany.

The Significance of Lotharingia

• A Kingdom Without a Lasting Identity → While West and East Francia gradually evolve into France and Germany, Lotharingia becomes a battleground, torn between rival Carolingian and later Holy Roman Empire factions.
• The Root of Franco-German Rivalry → The division of Lotharingia sets the stage for centuries of territorial disputes over Alsace-Lorraine and the Low Countries.
• Eventual Absorption → After Lothair II's death in 869, Lotharingia is partitioned between West Francia and East Francia, ensuring that the region remains divided and contested for generations.

Thus, Lotharingia, born from Lothair I’s abdication, becomes a short-lived but historically significant kingdom, shaping the political geography of medieval Europe and fueling future conflicts between France and the Holy Roman Empire.

Lothair, following his abdication, enters the monastery of Prum, where on September 29 he dies.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (856–867 CE): Muladi and Mozarab Revolts, and Umayyad Instability

The era 856–867 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is characterized by significant internal unrest in Al-Andalus under Emir Muhammad I, involving revolts by Muladi and Mozarab populations, and continuing complex relationships among Iberian political entities.

Muladi and Mozarab Revolts under Muhammad I

The reign of Córdoba-born Umayyad Emir Muhammad I (r. 852–886 CE) is marked by widespread revolts among the Muladi (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) and Mozarabs (Christians living in Muslim-majority areas). Dissatisfied with the central authority, these groups express their discontent through numerous uprisings, reflecting the ongoing ethnic and religious tensions within Al-Andalus.

Musa ibn Musa and the Banu Qasi Revolt

Prominent among the rebels are the Banu Qasi, a powerful Muladi family led by Musa ibn Musa, governor of Zaragoza. Musa notably allies with the Arista family, rulers of the neighboring Christian Kingdom of Navarre, openly defying Córdoba’s authority. He audaciously proclaims himself the "third king of Spain," challenging both Emir Muhammad I of Córdoba and King Ordoño I of Asturias, illustrating the complex interplay of alliances and rivalries across religious and political boundaries.

Lucena and Jewish Cultural Influence

Meanwhile, Lucena continues to thrive as the cultural center of Andalusian Jewry, recognized for its unique all-Jewish character during the Muslim period. Jewish communities, particularly in Lucena, maintain significant roles in scholarship, commerce, and intercultural exchange, contributing greatly to the rich cultural tapestry of Al-Andalus.

Continued Carolingian Fragmentation and Italian Stability

In Italy, the Carolingian political landscape remains fragmented following the Treaty of Verdun (843 CE), though relative stability endures in territories ruled by Lothair I and his successors. The papacy sustains its central role as a stabilizing influence, fostering cultural continuity and maintaining diplomatic connections across fragmented Carolingian territories.

Economic and Technological Continuity

Technological developments, notably the widespread use of the Catalan forge, continue to underpin regional economic stability. Enhanced iron production supports improvements in agriculture, military capacity, and urban development, further sustaining prosperity and growth across Mediterranean Southwest Europe.

Legacy of the Era

The era 856–867 CE highlights critical ethnic, religious, and political tensions within Al-Andalus, marked by Muladi and Mozarab revolts against Umayyad rule. Simultaneously, the region's ongoing cultural vibrancy and economic stability continue to shape its dynamic medieval trajectory.

Atlantic West Europe (856–867): Regional Fragmentation and the Emergence of Key Territories

Between 856 and 867, Atlantic West Europe continued to experience political fragmentation and emerging regional identities following the divisions of the Carolingian Empire. This era marked significant developments in territorial governance and the foundation of lasting political entities.

Political and Military Developments

• West Francia: Under Charles the Bald (r. 843–877), West Francia faced ongoing challenges from internal revolts and Viking incursions, leading to increased decentralization of royal authority. Charles struggled to maintain control over powerful regional lords who asserted greater autonomy.

• Emergence of Flanders and Anjou:

  • Flanders began to take shape under Baldwin Iron Arm, who secured territories through marriage to Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, in 862. Baldwin was granted lands around Ghent and Bruges, laying foundations for the powerful medieval County of Flanders.

  • Anjou saw the rise of Robert the Strong (d. 866), appointed by Charles the Bald as Count of Anjou to combat Viking raids along the Loire Valley, establishing a powerful dynasty that would significantly impact West Francia.

• Middle Francia to Lotharingia: Following Emperor Lothair I’s death in 855, Middle Francia fragmented further. His lands were divided among his sons, creating Lotharingia (the northern part), Italy, and Provence (Lower Burgundy).

• Formation of Upper Burgundy (Transjurane Burgundy): The lands north of Lake Geneva formed the independent Kingdom of Upper Burgundy under King Conrad II (r. 855–876). Although geographically peripheral to Atlantic West Europe, Upper Burgundy’s emergence significantly influenced future interactions with Burgundy, Franche-Comté, and Alsace.

Economic and Social Developments

• Ongoing Viking raids disrupted trade and settlement patterns along rivers and coastlines, compelling regions to develop fortified strongholds and defensive measures, thereby reshaping settlement patterns.

• Agricultural productivity began recovering slightly, but instability continued to hinder significant economic growth.

Religious and Cultural Developments

• Monastic establishments and churches continued to endure threats and disruptions from raids but remained central to cultural preservation, education, and manuscript production.

• Carolingian artistic and intellectual traditions persisted within monastic centers despite broader regional instability.

Long-term Impact

This period was pivotal for the formation of enduring regional identities and political structures:

• The emergence of Flanders and Anjou provided foundations for powerful medieval counties.

• The fragmentation of Middle Francia created new political realities that shaped the geopolitical dynamics of Atlantic West Europe, notably the formation of Lotharingia and Upper Burgundy.

• Persistent decentralization and Viking threats further accelerated the fragmentation of Carolingian authority, setting the stage for the feudal landscape of the High Middle Ages.

The division of the dominions of Emperor Lothair I, by which his eldest son Louis had obtained no territory outside Italy, had aroused his discontent, and in 857 he allies himself with his uncle Louis the German, king of East Francia, against his own brother Lothair II, King of Lotharingia, and his other uncle King Charles the Bald, king of West Francia.

Lothair II’s Divorce Crisis and Political Struggles (858)

By 858, Lothair II, ruler of Lotharingia, is deeply entangled in a controversial attempt to divorce his wife, Teutberga, in favor of his mistress, Waldrada, with whom he already has a son. His efforts to legitimize this relationship and secure an heir shape his political alliances and conflicts within the Carolingian world.

The Divorce Attempt and Its Political Implications

• Teutberga, Lothair's lawful wife, is the sister of Hucbert, Abbot of St. Maurice, a powerful noble with strong ecclesiastical and military influence.
• Lothair, lacking a legitimate male heir, seeks to marry Waldrada, ensuring that his son with her is recognized as his rightful successor.
• His relations with his uncles, Charles the Bald and Louis the German, become highly influenced by their stance on the divorce.
  • Louis the German supports the divorce, seeing it as an opportunity to gain influence in Lotharingia.
  • Charles the Bald opposes it, recognizing that if Lothair dies without an heir, his territory could be up for grabs.

The Role of Pope Nicholas I and Lothair’s Reconciliation with Louis the German

• In 858, Lothair’s younger brother, Louis II (King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor), secures the election of Pope Nicholas I.
• With the new pope in place, Louis the German reconciles with Lothair, offering military assistance in return for lands south of the Jura Mountains.
• Feeling emboldened, Lothair puts away Teutberga, dismissing her from the royal court in favor of Waldrada.

Teutberga’s Ordeal and Her Restoration (858)

• Hucbert, her brother, takes up arms in her defense, rallying secular and ecclesiastical support against Lothair.
• Teutberga is forced to undergo the ordeal of water to prove her innocence:
  • This was likely the ordeal of hot water, which involved plunging one’s arm into boiling water and later assessing whether the wounds healed miraculously.
  • The more dangerous ordeal of cold water, in which the accused was thrown into water to see if they sank (proof of innocence), had been abolished by Louis the Pious in 829.
• Teutberga successfully endures the ordeal, proving her innocence according to medieval custom.
• Lothair is compelled to restore her, as the Church and political rivals refuse to accept his marriage to Waldrada.

Impact of the 858 Crisis

• Lothair's failure to secure his divorce leaves his succession uncertain, fueling further tensions between Charles the Bald and Louis the German, both of whom anticipate his kingdom’s eventual partition.
• His conflict with the Papacy will escalate in the coming years, leading to direct intervention from Pope Nicholas I, reinforcing the Church’s growing role in dynastic disputes.
• The dynastic struggle over Lotharingia continues, setting the stage for future Franco-German conflicts over the region.

Though Lothair temporarily reconciles with Louis the German, his battle to legitimize Waldrada and her children is far from over, shaping the politics of the Carolingian world for the next decade.