Luxembourg, County of

Otto III, having never married, has died without issue, leaving the Empire without a clear successor.

As the funeral procession moved through the Duchy of Bavaria in February 1002, Otto III's cousin Henry II, son of Henry the Quarrelsome, and the new Duke of Bavaria, had asked the bishops and nobles to elect him as the new king of Germany.

With the exception of the Bishop of Augsburg, Henry II had received no support for his claims.

At Otto III's funeral on Easter 1002, in Aachen, the German nobles repeat their opposition to Henry II.

Several rival candidates for the throne—Count Ezzo of Lotharingia, Margrave Eckard I of Meissen, and Duke Herman II of Swabia—strongly contest the succession of Henry II.

Henry takes the radical action of having himself anointed and crowned king by Archbishop of Mainz Willigis on June 7, 1002, without the support of the kingdom's nobility.

Henry's action marks the first time a German king is not crowned in Aachen Cathedral since Emperor Otto I began the tradition in 936 and the first time a German king assumes the throne without election by the German nobility.

The new German monarch appears before the Saxons in mid-July in full regal apparel as " King Henry II".

Here, Henry peersuades Bernard I, Duke of Saxony, to support his claims to the throne.

In return for his support, Henry will guarantee Bernard's right to rule the Saxons and to represent their interests before the king.

Henry arranges for Archbishop Willigis to crown his wife, Cunigunde of Luxembourg, as queen, one month after gaining the support of the Saxons.

He soon asserts his authority on the western frontier against the Frisians and the counts of Flanders and Luxembourg.

Henry II's Struggle for the German Throne and the Submission of Herman II of Swabia (1002)

Following the death of Emperor Otto III in January 1002, Henry II faced significant opposition in his bid to claim the German throne. The most formidable challenger was Herman II, Duke of Swabia, who contested Henry’s legitimacy based on his marital connection to the Ottonian dynasty. Their rivalry escalated into military conflict, followed by a prolonged struggle for the loyalty of the kingdom’s nobles.

Herman II’s Challenge to Henry II

• Herman II of Swabia asserted his claim as Otto III’s rightful heir due to his marriage to a daughter of Liudolf, the eldest son of Emperor Otto I.
• The armed conflicts between Henry and Herman were inconclusive, leading to a prolonged political strugglefor the support of Swabian nobles.
• Swabia, a powerful and autonomous duchy, became the primary battleground in this contest for legitimacy.

Henry II’s Strategy for Securing the Throne

• Unable to decisively defeat Herman militarily, Henry II embarked on a diplomatic campaign, traveling through the key duchies of the realm—Saxony, Bavaria, Swabia, Upper Lorraine, Lower Lorraine, and Franconia—to secure the loyalty of the regional elites.
• Rather than relying solely on the traditional election process, Henry sought general consent from his subjects, presenting himself as the natural successor to the Ottonian rulers.
• His familial ties to the Ottonian dynasty, as the great-grandson of Otto I, ultimately convinced the kingdom’s nobles to accept him as king.

Herman II’s Defeat and Submission (1002)

• After a prolonged power struggle, Henry II finally defeated Herman II near Strasbourg.
• On October 1, 1002, Herman II formally submitted to Henry, acknowledging his rule.
• In return for his submission, Henry II allowed him to retain the Duchy of Swabia until his death the following year (1003).

The Fate of Swabia After Herman II

• Upon Herman II’s death in 1003, his minor son, Hermann III, inherited the title of Duke of Swabia, but Henry II effectively took control of the duchy, ensuring that Swabia remained under royal influence.
• This direct intervention in Swabian affairs strengthened royal authority over the duchies, laying the groundwork for imperial centralization in the Holy Roman Empire.

Legacy and Significance

Henry II’s success in subduing Herman II and consolidating his rule marked a crucial step in securing the German crown. His reliance on noble support rather than outright military conquest demonstrated the shifting nature of royal power in medieval Germany, where kings had to balance military strength with political legitimacy. His actions set a precedent for future rulers seeking to assert dominance over the powerful regional duchies.

Henry II had promised to install Henry of Schweinfurt, Margrave of Nordgau, as his successor to the Duchy of Bavaria in exchange for supporting his claim to the German crown.

Upon assuming the throne, however, Henry II had refused to honor his promise, and instead supported the rights of the Bavarians to elect their own duke.

With Henry II's support, Count Henry I of Luxembourg becomes the Duke of Bavaria as Henry V. Margrave Henry, thus betrayed by Henry II, allies with Duke Boleslaw I of Poland against the king.

However, his rebellion is soon quashed and the Nordgauian Margrave is deposed in 1004.

Henry II now abolishes the March of Nordgau.

He will establish the Diocese of Bamberg in 1007, and transfer secular authority over the March's former territory to the Diocese in order to prevent further uprisings.

The Ottonian dynasty, which has ruled Germany since 919, had ended with the death of the childless Emperor Henry II.

Without a clear successor as King of Germany, Henry's widow Cunigunde of Luxembourg serves as regent while the German dukes gather to elect a new king.

Cunigunde is assisted by her brothers Duke Henry V of Bavaria and Dietrich II of Luxembourg, Bishop of Metz.

Archbiship Aribo of Mainz, the Primate of Germany, also assists Cunigunde.

The German princes gather on September 4, 1024, at Kamba, an historical name for an area on the east banks of the river Rhine River opposite the German town Oppenheim, Archbishop Aribo serving as the assembly's president.

Conrad represents him before the assembly as a candidate for election, as does his younger cousin Conrad the Younger.

Both are descendants from Emperor Otto I by their common grandfather Otto of Worms from his mother Liutgarde, one of Otto's daughters.

Although other extended members of the Ottonian dynasty exist, none are seriously considered for election.

The chronicler Wipo of Burgundy, who is Conrad's chaplain and attending the meeting, records the election.

The Duchy of Saxony adopts a neutral strategy while the Duchy of Lorraine favors the younger Conrad, but a majority of the assembled princes favor the elder Conrad, whose seven-year old son ensures a stable dynasty for the kingdom.

As president of the assembly, Archbishop Aribo casts the first vote and supports Conrad; he is joined in this vote by the other clergy.

The secular dukes then cast their votes for Conrad as well.

Only Archbishop Pilgrim of Cologne, Duke Gothelo I of Lower Lorraine, and Duke Frederick II of Upper Lorraine refuse to support him.

Archbishop Aribo crowns Conrad King of Germany in Mainz Cathedral on September 8, 1024.

Conrad II thus becomes the first member of the Salian, or Franconian, dynasty of German kings.

Archbishop Aribo, as Archbishop of Mainz, is already the chancellor of Germany but, in gratitude for his electoral support, is appointed by Conrad as chancellor of Italy as well, making Aribo the second most powerful man in the Holy Roman Empire as the Imperial Chancellor.

Aribo refuses to crown Conrad's wife Gisela as queen due to their close blood relation being a violation of canon law, but Conrad refuses to accept this.

Gislela had first married Bruno I, Count of Brunswick, in 1002.

Her second marriage was to Ernest I, Duke of Swabia, who had inherited Swabia through her at the death of Gisela's brother, Herman III.

After his death in 1015, she had become regent for their son Ernest II.

She had then then been removed from the regency on grounds of her being too closely related to her late husband.

Her third marriage, in 1016 or 1017, had been to Conrad.

Archbishop Pilgrim of Cologne sees the situation as an opportunity to restore his relationship with the king after refusing to support his election and crowns Gisela as Empress of Germany on September 21, 1024.

Pilgrim’s political reorientation also weakens the opposition towards the new king.

The Rule of Henry V of Bavaria and the Transfer of the Duchy (1009–1026)

Henry V of Luxembourg, Duke of Bavaria, experienced a turbulent relationship with his brother-in-law, Emperor Henry II, who removed and later reinstated him as duke before his death in 1026. His lack of heirs led to a reshuffling of Bavarian authority, ultimately returning the duchy to imperial control.

Henry V’s Removal and Reinstatement as Duke of Bavaria (1009–1017)

• Henry V of Luxembourg, brother of Empress Cunigunde, was originally granted the Duchy of Bavaria by Emperor Henry II.
• However, in 1009, a quarrel between the two rulers led to Henry V’s removal from power.
• For nearly a decade, the Bavarian duchy remained in imperial hands until 1017, when Henry II reinstated Henry V as Duke of Bavaria.
• Despite this return to favor, Henry V never married, leaving his rule without a direct heir.

Succession and the Transfer of Bavaria (1026)

• Upon Henry V’s death in 1026, his county of Luxembourg passed to his nephew Henry, strengthening the Luxembourg dynasty.
• The Duchy of Bavaria, however, reverted to the Holy Roman Empire, as Henry V had no heirs to continue his ducal line.
• By 1027, the new emperor, Conrad II, placed Bavaria under imperial control, preparing it for new governance within the Salian dynasty.

Conrad II’s Grant of Bavaria to His Son (1027)

• In 1027, Emperor Conrad II bestowed the Duchy of Bavaria upon his son, the future Emperor Henry III, securing Salian control over one of the most important duchies of the empire.
• This transition marked Bavaria’s return to direct imperial administration, reinforcing Conrad II’s authority over the German nobility.
• Henry III would later become Holy Roman Emperor, ensuring that Bavaria remained a key imperial power base throughout his reign.

Legacy

• Henry V of Bavaria’s reign demonstrated the precarious nature of ducal appointments in the Holy Roman Empire, where imperial favor could make or break a ruler’s tenure.
• His lack of heirs resulted in the recentralization of Bavaria, allowing Conrad II to consolidate dynastic control over the region.
• The transfer of Bavaria to Henry III strengthened imperial authority, setting the stage for the duchy’s integration into the Salian dynasty’s long-term strategy of governance.

Henry V’s rule and succession crisis exemplified the interplay between dynastic ambition and imperial authority, reinforcing the emperor’s power while shaping the future of Bavaria as a cornerstone of the Holy Roman Empire.

Charles makes Prague into an imperial city.

Extensive building projects undertaken by the king include the founding of the New Town southeast of the old city.

The royal castle, Hradcany, is rebuilt.

Of particular significance is the founding of Charles University in Prague in 1348.

Charles's intention is to make Prague into an international center of learning, and the university is divided into Czech, Polish, Saxon, and Bavarian "nations," each with one controlling vote.

Charles University, however, will become the nucleus of intense Czech particularism.

Charles dies in 1378, and the Bohemian crown goes to his son, Wenceslas IV.