Mexico, Second Federal Republic of
State | Defunct
1846 CE to 1863 CE
The Second Federal Republic of Mexico (Spanish: Segunda República Federal de México) is the name given to the second attempt to achieve a federalist government in Mexico.
Officially called the United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos), a federal republic is implemented again on August 22, 1846 when interim president José Mariano Salas issues a decree restoring the 1824 constitution.
Like the Mexican Empire, the First Federal Republic and the Centralist Republic it is a chaotic period, marked by political instability that results in several internal conflicts.
Mexico's loss of the war with the United States sees half the territory Mexico claimed become part of the United States.
Even though Antonio López de Santa Anna plays a major role in much of this history, he returns to the presidency yet again, selling northern territory coveted by the United States contiguous to territory it had just gained in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
The sale of the Mesilla Valley is for many the final straw, and liberals promulgate the Plan of Ayutla, calling for the overthrow of Santa Anna.
Santa Anna goes into exile and the liberals set about implementing their vision of Mexico.
Liberals enact a series of separate reforms, then the Constitution of 1857, collectively known as the Liberal Reform, which sparks a civil war, known as the War of the Reform.
The conservatives set up a parallel Mexican government and lose the War of the Reform.
After losing the war, conservatives seek another political alternative, which involves the second French intervention in Mexico, which, with Mexican conservative support, establishes the Second Mexican Empire.
Mexican conservatives' political interests are in tandem with the expansionism of Napoleon III of France.
Conservatives invite Maximilian Hapsburg to serve as monarch of the Second Mexican Empire.
Mexican republicans fight against the French invaders and are largely defeated on the battlefield, but Benito Juárez does not resign the presidency, and operates a government in exile, which the United States continuesto recognize as the legitimate Mexican government.
The republic is restored by Juárez in 1867 after the withdrawal of the French and the execution of Maximilian.
With conservatives discredited by their support of the ill-fated monarchy, Juárez is able to implement liberal policies.
This period of federalism in Mexico is widely known as the Restored Republic, lasting from 1867 to the 1876 coup of liberal army general, Porfirio Díaz, ushering in a long period of authoritarian rule, peace, and economic development known as the Porfiriato.
The liberal constitution remains nominally in force, with regular elections held that are increasingly seen as fraudulent.
The Constitution of 1857 is supplanted by the Mexican Constitution of 1917, as an outcome of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920).
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Mexico's economic conditions worsen during the administration of its first president, Guadalupe Victoria, as government expenditures soar beyond revenues.
Declining economic conditions persuade the criollos that there is more behind the economic decline than bad management by peninsulares.
One of the government's major burdens is the assumption of all debts contracted during the late colonial period and the empire, a substantial sum.
The government's ability to service the debt is severely constrained by the costs of maintaining a fifty-thousand-strong standing army and the insufficiency of revenues generated by tariffs, taxes, and government monopolies.
To cover the shortfall, Victoria accepts two large loans on stiff terms from British merchant houses.
The British have supported independence movements in Spanish colonies and see the loans as an opportunity to further displace Spain as the New World's dominant mercantile power.
The five provinces of El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica go on to establish themselves as the United Provinces of Central America on July 1, 1823.
The United Provinces, unworkable though they prove to be, constitute the only successful political union of the Central American states in the postcolonial era.
Many optimistic residents of the region no doubt hold high hopes for this new nation at its inception.
Their sentiments are expressed elegantly, though ironically—given the subsequent course of events—by the liberator of South America, Simon Bolivar, who expounds in 1815 on the prospects for such a federation: "This magnificent location between the two great oceans could in time become the emporium of the world. Its canals will shorten the distances throughout the world, strengthen commercial ties with Europe, America, and Asia, and bring that happy region tribute from the four quarters of the globe. Perhaps some day the capital of the world may be located there, just as Constantine claimed Byzantium was the capital of the ancient world."
In March 1823, Iturbide is overthrown in Mexico, and the empire is replaced by a republic.
The Central American Congress, in which Comayagua but not Tegucigalpa is represented, is quickly convened.
With little debate, the United Provinces of Central America declare their independence from Mexico.
Mexico's only effort to reverse this decision consists in maintaining control over Chiapas, the northernmost of the six previous provinces of Central America.
A brief period of monarchy (1821–23), called the First Mexican Empire, is followed by the founding of the Republic of Mexico, established under a federal constitution in 1824.
Legal racial categories are eliminated, abolishing the system of castas.
Slavery is not abolished at independence in 1821 or with the constitution in 1824, but will be eliminated in 1829.
The Spanish Captain General, Gabino Gaínza, sympathizes with the rebels and it is decided that he should stay on as interim leader until a new government can be formed.
Independence is short-lived, for the conservative leaders in Guatemala welcome annexation by the First Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide on January 5, 1822.
Central American liberals object to this, but an army from Mexico under General Vicente Filisola occupies Guatemala City and quells dissent.
When Mexico becomes a republic the following year, it acknowledges Central America's right to determine its own destiny.
On July 1, 1823, the congress of Central America declares absolute independence from Spain, Mexico, and any other foreign nation, including North Americas, and a Republican system of government is established.
In 1823, the nation of Central America is formed.
Intended to be a federal republic modeled after the United States of America, it is provisionally known as "The United Provinces of Central America," while the final name according to the Constitution of 1824 is "The Federal Republic of Central America."
It is sometimes incorrectly referred in English as "The United States of Central America."
The Central American nation consists of the states of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
Manifest Destiny is rejected by modernizers, especially the Whigs like Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln who want to build cities and factories—not more farms.
Democrats strongly favor expansion, and win the key election of 1844.
After a bitter debate in Congress the Republic of Texas is annexed in 1845, leading to war with Mexico, who consider Texas to be a part of Mexico due to the large numbers of Mexican settlers.
The 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain leads to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest.
Victory in the Mexican–American War results in the 1848 Mexican Cession of California and much of the present-day American Southwest.
The California Gold Rush of 1848–49 spurs migration to the Pacific coast, which leads to the California Genocide and the creation of additional western states.
The U.S. army, using regulars and large numbers of volunteers, defeats the Mexican armies, invades at several points, captures Mexico City and wins decisively.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ends the war in 1848.
Many Democrats want to annex all of Mexico, but that idea is rejected by southerners who argue that by incorporating millions of Mexican people, mainly of mixed race, would undermine the United States as an exclusively white republic.
Instead the U.S. takes Texas and the lightly settled northern parts (California and New Mexico)
The Hispanic residents are given full citizenship and the Mexican Indians become American Indians.
Simultaneously, gold is discovered in California in 1849, attracting over one hundred thousand men to northern California in a matter of months in the California Gold Rush.
A peaceful compromise with Britain gives the U.S. ownership of the Oregon Country, which is renamed the Oregon Territory.
Antonio López de Santa Anna, president once again, denounces both congress and his own subordinates in the executive branch for their lack of resolve in preparing the defense of the capital.
They, in turn, denounce him for his failures in battle.
On August 20, 1847, the Army of Occupation asks for the surrender of Mexico City, but the battle continues until September 13, 1847, when the last bastion of Mexican resistance falls during the famous Battle of Chapultepec.
During the battle, young cadets from the Mexican military academy, the Niños Héroes (or "boy heroes") leap to their deaths rather than surrender.
The United States victory marks the end of the war and the beginning of negotiations for peace.