Muslim Arab opposition to the Crusaders, initially fragmented among various petty states, begins, after 1128, gradually to unify under the strong leadership of the Turkish Zangid dynasty, which from 1127 to 1222 is to rule northern Iraq (al-Jazirah) and Syria.

The term Greater Syria will be coined during Ottoman rule to designate the approximate area included in present-day Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel.

The Maan family, under orders from the governor of Damascus, had come to Lebanon in 1120 to defend it against the invading Crusaders.

They had settled on the southwestern slopes of the Lebanon Mountains and soon adopted the Druze religion.

Their authority began to rise with Fakhr ad Din I, who was permitted by Ottoman authorities to organize his own army, and reaches its peak with Fakhr ad Din II (1570-1635).

Fakhr ad Din I greatly enhances Lebanon's military and economic development, although his aspirations toward complete independence for Lebanon end tragically.

Noted for religious tolerance and suspected of being a Christian, Fakhr ad Din attempts to merge the country's different religious groups into one Lebanese community.

In an effort to attain complete independence for Lebanon, he concludes a secret agreement with Ferdinand I, duke of Tuscany in Italy, the two parties pledging to support each other against the Ottomans.

The Ottoman ruler in Constantinople, informed of this agreement, reacts violently and orders Ahmad al Hafiz, governor of Damascus, to attack Fakhr ad Din.

Realizing his inability to cope with the regular army of Al Hafiz, the Lebanese ruler goes to Tuscany in exile in 1613.

He returns to Lebanon in 1618, after his good friend Muhammad Pasha becomes governor of Damascus.

Following his return from Tuscany, Fakhr ad Din, realizing the need for a strong and disciplined armed force, channels his financial resources into building a regular army.

This army proves itself in 1623, when Mustafa Pasha, the new governor of Damascus, underestimating the capabilities of the Lebanese army, engages it in battle and is decisively defeated at Anjar in the Beqaa Valey.

Impressed by the victory of the Lebanese ruler, the sultan of Constantinople gives him the title of Sultan al Barr (Sultan of the Mountain).

In addition to building up the army, Fakhr ad Din, who becomes acquainted with Italian culture during his stay in Tuscany, initiates measures to modernize the country.

After forming close ties with the dukes of Tuscany and Florence and establishing diplomatic relations with them, he brings in architects, irrigation engineers, and agricultural experts from Italy in an effort to promote prosperity in the country.

He also strengthens Lebanon's strategic position by expanding its territory, building forts as far away as Palmyra in Syria, and gaining control of Palestine.

Finally, the Ottoman sultan Murad IV of Constantinople, wanting to thwart Lebanon's progress toward complete independence, orders Kutshuk, governor of Damascus, to attack the Lebanese ruler.

This time Fakhr ad Din is defeated, and he is executed in Constantinople in 1635.

No significant Maan rulers succeed Fakhr ad Din II.

The Ottoman Empire is a world power when Suleyman dies in 1566.

Most of the great cities of Islam—Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, Cairo, Tunis, and Baghdad— are under the sultan's crescent flag.

The Porte exercises direct control over Anatolia, the sub-Danubian Balkan provinces, Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia.

Egypt, Mecca, and the North African provinces are governed under special regulations, as are satellite domains in Arabia and the Caucasus, and among the Crimean Tartars.

In addition, the native rulers of Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and Ragusa (Dubrovnik) are vassals of the sultan.

The Shihabs succeed the Maans as the emirs of Mount Lebanon in 1697.

They originally lived in the Hawran region of southwestern Syria and settled in Wadi at Taim in southern Lebanon.

The most prominent among them is Bashir II, who is much like his predecessor, Fakhr ad Din II.

His ability as a statesman is first tested in 1799, when Napoleon besieges Acre, a well-fortified coastal city in Palestine, about forty kilometers south of Tyre.

Both Napoleon and Al Jazzar, the governor of Acre, request assistance from the Shihab leader; Bashir, however, remains neutral, declining to assist either combatant.

Unable to conquer Acre, Napoleon returns to Egypt, and the death of Al Jazzar in 1804 removes Bashir's principal opponent in the area.

Bashir II of Mount Lebanon, deciding to break away from the Ottoman Empire, allies himself with Muhammad Ali, the founder of modern Egypt, and assists Muhammad Ali's son, Ibrahim Pasha, in another siege of Acre.

This siege lasts seven months, the city falling on May 27, 1832.

The Egyptian army, with assistance from Bashir's troops, also attacks and conquers Damascus on June 14, 1832.

The Ottoman sultans enact some reforms in Syria during the nineteenth century because of European pressure as well as the discontent of the Syrian people.

The Egyptian occupation of Syria from 1831 to 1839 under the nominal authority of the sultan brings a centralized government, judicial reform, and regular taxation, but Ibrahim Pasha, son of the Egyptian ruler, becomes unpopular with the landowners because he has limited their influence and with the peasants because he has imposed conscription and taxation.

He is eventually driven from Syria by the sultan's forces.

The Middle East: 1840–1851 CE

Ottoman Restoration and Egyptian Retreat

The era beginning in 1840 witnesses the restoration of direct Ottoman rule in Syria and Lebanon, following Egyptian withdrawal. The Convention of London (1840) decisively ends the Egyptian occupation, compelling Muhammad Ali Pasha to relinquish his Syrian territories back to the Ottomans while securing hereditary rule over Egypt for his family. Ottoman authorities, aiming to reestablish stability and control, initiate administrative reforms known as the Tanzimat, introducing structured taxation systems and limited modernization in the provinces. However, these reforms face resistance from local elites accustomed to greater autonomy, particularly in Syria and Mount Lebanon.

In Mount Lebanon, Bashir II Shihab pays a heavy price for his earlier allegiance to Egypt. After Egyptian withdrawal, he is deposed in 1840 and exiled, leading to political instability exacerbated by sectarian tensions among Maronites, Druze, and Muslims. Bashir III is appointed amir of Mount Lebanon on September 3, 1840, but bitter conflicts between Christians and Druzes quickly resurface under his rule. These tensions result in Bashir III's deposition on January 13, 1842, replaced by Ottoman governor Umar Pasha. To ease tensions, the Ottoman sultan partitions Lebanon into two districts under separate Christian and Druze deputy governors, known as the Double Qaimaqamate. However, this partition only deepens sectarian animosities, occasionally erupting into violence, notably in May 1845. The European powers intervene, prompting the Ottomans to establish advisory councils (majlis) representing the different religious communities.

Saudi Arabia: Turmoil and British Influence

In Arabia, the Al Saud dynasty under Faisal ibn Turki Al Saud faces intense internal strife following the assassination of his father, Turki ibn Abd Allah, in 1834. Faisal consolidates control from Riyadh by 1843 after nearly a decade of internecine warfare. During this period, Ottoman forces briefly occupy eastern Arabian territories, including Al Qatif and Al Hufuf, exploiting internal Saudi divisions.

Faisal’s reign balances relations with the Ottoman Empire and emerging British interests. Britain's strategic concern over the Persian Gulf, due to trade routes and protection of India, increasingly influences Arabian politics. The British East India Company establishes treaty relations with several Gulf emirates, intensifying British presence and shaping regional political developments. The Al Saud leverage their Wahhabi influence to maintain control over central Arabia, though their influence in the Hijaz remains limited due to Ottoman and Egyptian vigilance.

Persian Decline and Increased Foreign Intervention

In Persia, the Qajar Dynasty struggles with internal instability and external pressures following significant territorial losses to Russia. The aftermath of the Treaty of Turkmanchay (1828) leaves Persia economically and politically weakened, prompting increasing British and Russian interference—the rivalry known as "The Great Game."

Under Mohammad Shah Qajar (1834–1848), central authority erodes, leading to regional uprisings and increased autonomy of tribal leaders. Upon the accession of Naser ad-Din Shah in 1848, his prime minister, Mirza Taqi Khan Amir Kabir, initiates reforms aimed at strengthening central authority, modernizing taxation, encouraging trade and industry, and establishing the Dar ol Fonun school for elites. However, jealousy and political intrigue lead to Amir Kabir's dismissal and execution in 1851, symbolizing the persistent internal weaknesses that allow further foreign intervention.

Oman's Maritime and Diplomatic Expansion

Said bin Sultan al-Busaidi expands Oman's maritime trade, enhancing economic prosperity and international prestige. His rule is characterized by commercial diplomacy, maintaining favorable relations with Britain. Oman's East African territories, particularly Zanzibar, become major trade hubs for spices, ivory, and slaves, solidifying Oman's strategic importance to British interests in securing maritime routes between Europe and India.

Tribal Dynamics in the Gulf and the Rise of Qatar

The Al Thani clan firmly establishes itself in Qatar, asserting independence from the Al Khalifa of Bahrain and resisting external domination attempts. The ideological alignment of the Al Thani with Wahhabism continues distinguishing Qatar politically and religiously from neighboring emirates.

In Abu Dhabi, the Al Nahyan family consolidates power, leveraging alliances with Oman and Britain to secure their territorial claims. The Bani Yas tribe’s alignment further stabilizes Abu Dhabi, ensuring its growth as a regional power.

Russian Consolidation and Cultural Transformation in the Caucasus

The Russian Empire consolidates administrative control over Georgia and northern Azerbaijan, systematically introducing Russian legal, administrative, and educational reforms. Tsar Alexander I had abolished the kingdom of Kartli-Kakhetia in 1801, integrating eastern Georgia and subsequently western Georgia by 1804. Russian rule significantly transforms local societies, fostering a new educated elite influenced by Russian culture and governance. Armenian national consciousness intensifies as Armenians from Russia and former Persian provinces come under unified tsarist administration.

Russia's victory over Persia in 1828 and annexation of the area around Erevan brings thousands of Armenians into the Russian Empire, integrating them within a single legal and administrative framework. The Armenian community benefits from relative peace and economic growth under Russian rule, significantly ending previous isolation.

Legacy of the Era

From 1840 to 1851, the Middle East witnesses major geopolitical reconfigurations marked by Ottoman restoration, Persian decline, and increased British and Russian intervention. The reshaping of state structures, tribal dynamics, and communal identities during this period establishes enduring political frameworks and sectarian divisions, profoundly impacting regional politics and society into the modern era.

The subsequent Syrian reforms of Ottoman sultan Mahmud II and his son are more theoretical than real and are counteracted by reactionary forces inside the state as well as by the inertia of Ottoman officials.

Reforms prove somewhat successful with the Kurds and Turkomans in the north and with the Alawis around Latakia, but unsuccessful with the Druzes—who live in the Jabal Druze (present-day Jabal al Arab), a rugged mountainous area in southwest Syria—who retain their administrative and judicial autonomy and exemption from military service.

Although further reform attempts generally fail, some of the more successful endure.

Among them are the colonization of Syria's frontiers, the suppression of tribal raiding, the opening of new lands to cultivation, and the beginnings of the settlement of the Bedouin tribes.

Attempts to register the land fail, however, because of the peasants' fear of taxation and conscription.

Ibrahim Pasha and Bashir II at first rule harshly and exact high taxes.

These practices lead to several revolts and eventually end their power.

In May 1840, despite the efforts of Bashir, the Maronites and Druzes unite their forces against the Egyptians.

In addition, the principal European powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia), opposing the pro-Egyptian policy of the French, sign the London Treaty with the Sublime Porte (the Ottoman ruler) on July 15, 1840.

According to the terms of this treaty, Muhammad Ali is asked to leave Syria; when he rejects this request, Ottoman and British troops land on the Lebanese coast on September 10, 1840.

Faced with this combined force, Muhammad Ali retreats, and on October 14, 1840, Bashir II surrenders to the British and goes into exile.