Alexander's empire is divided among his Macedonian generals after his death.

The eastern part—Phoenicia, Asia Minor, northern Syria, and Mesopotamia—fall to Seleucus I, founder of the Seleucid dynasty.

The southern part of Syria and Egypt fall to Ptolemy, and the European part, including Macedon, to Antigonus I.

This settlement, however, fails to bring peace because Seleucus I and Ptolemy clash repeatedly in the course of their ambitious efforts to share in Phoenician prosperity.

A final victory of the Seleucids ends a forty-year period of conflict.

Near East (333–190 BCE): Hellenistic Conquests and Cultural Transformations

Alexander's Empire and its Immediate Aftermath (333–322 BCE)

The year 333 BCE inaugurates the Hellenistic Age when Alexander III of Macedon defeats the Persian Empire, transforming the geopolitical landscape of the Near East. Alexander’s swift military successes culminate in notable victories at the battles of Granicus (334 BCE), Issus (333 BCE), and Gaugamela (331 BCE). After the prolonged and pivotal siege of Tyre in 332 BCE, Alexander's domain stretches from Greece to the borders of India. He strategically integrates conquered territories through city foundations, notably Alexandria in Egypt, and religious accommodations, earning acceptance among local populations. His unexpected death in 323 BCE at Babylon triggers a complex power struggle among his generals—Perdiccas, Ptolemy Soter, Seleucus, and Antigonus Monophthalmus—eventually leading to the division of Alexander’s vast empire into separate dynasties.

Emergence of the Hellenistic Monarchies (321–298 BCE)

Alexander's territories fragment into significant Macedonian dynasties by 298 BCE. In Egypt, the Ptolemies establish a prosperous rule, significantly influencing the region by founding the renowned Library of Alexandria and the monumental Pharos Lighthouse. In Syria and Mesopotamia, the Seleucid dynasty emerges, though it remains in recurrent conflict with the Ptolemies, particularly over strategically vital areas such as Coele-Syria (modern-day Lebanon and southern Syria). Notably, after a forty-year conflict, a decisive Seleucid victory concludes initial hostilities over Phoenician territories.

Cultural Integration and Scholarly Achievement (297–274 BCE)

The Near East experiences widespread Hellenization, adopting Greek artistic, scientific, and architectural standards. Intellectual advancement peaks with scholars like Euclid, whose foundational texts on geometry and optics profoundly influence science. Cities such as Ashkelon and Ashdod are widely recognized by their Hellenized names, Ascalon and Azotus, exemplifying the era’s cultural synthesis. Egypt’s Ptolemaic Museum and Library at Alexandria become major scholarly hubs, further embedding Greek culture and intellectualism into the region.

Dynastic Rivalries and Egyptian Decline (273–226 BCE)

The Near East remains marked by fierce dynastic rivalries, particularly the Damascene War (280 BCE) and the subsequent First Syrian War (274 BCE). The internal stability of Ptolemaic Egypt significantly weakens due to court intrigues, rebellions, and economic strains. Antiochus III exploits this turmoil, resulting in Egypt's near-total loss of its Asian territories following the Battle of Panium (200 BCE). Such territorial shifts profoundly alter regional power structures.

Revolts and the Rise of Regional Powers (225–190 BCE)

Seleucid domains experience instability due to revolts by powerful satraps, notably Achaeus and Attalus of Pergamon, who successfully assert independence in Asia Minor. Attalus I consolidates Pergamon's power through victories over the Galatians, celebrated in the renowned sculpture The Dying Gaul. The century ends with the devastating Roman–Syrian War (192–188 BCE), significantly curtailing Seleucid authority, limiting it to a fragmented domain centered in Mesopotamia and inland Syria.

Legacy of the Age

The Near East during the Hellenistic Age undergoes profound political and cultural transformations marked by the spread of Greek culture, administrative reforms, and vibrant urban planning. Influential cities like Alexandria and Pergamon symbolize these shifts, becoming enduring centers of culture and learning. Despite flourishing intellectually and artistically, persistent dynastic conflicts and internal instabilities ultimately create vulnerabilities that pave the way for Roman ascendancy, marking this period as a crucial transition shaping the historical evolution of the Near East.

The Persian occupation of Egypt ends when Alexander the Great defeats the Persians at the Battle of Issus (near present-day Iskenderun in Turkey) in November 333 BCE.

The Egyptians, who despise the monotheistic Persians and chafe under Persian rule, welcome Alexander as a deliverer.

In the autumn of 332 BCE Alexander enters Memphis, where, like a true Hellene, he pays homage to the native gods and is apparently accepted without question as king of Egypt.

Also like a true Hellene, he celebrates the occasion with competitive games and a drama and music festival at which some of the leading artists of Greece are present.

From Memphis, Alexander marches down the western arm of the Nile and founds the city of Alexandria.

He next goes to the oasis of Siwa (present-day Siwah) to consult the oracle at the Temple of Amun, the Egyptian god whom the Greeks identify with their own Zeus.

After Alexander's death of malarial fever in 323 BCE, the Macedonian commander in Egypt, Ptolemy, who is the son of Lagos, one of Alexander's seven bodyguards, manages to secure for himself the satrapy (provincial governorship) of Egypt.

Another of Alexander's generals, Antigonus, citing the principle that the empire Alexander created should remain unified, takes the royal title in 306 BCE.

In reaction, his rivals for power, Ptolemy of Egypt, Cassander of Macedonia, and Seleucus of Syria, counter by declaring themselves kings of their respective dominions.

Thus comes into existence the three great monarchies that are to dominate the Hellenistic world until they are absorbed, one by one, into the Roman Empire.

The dynasty Ptolemy founds in Egypt is known as the line of Ptolemaic pharaohs and will endure until the suicide of Cleopatra in 30 BCE, at which time direct Roman control will be instituted.

The early Ptolemies are hardheaded administrators and business people, anxious to make the state that they have created stable, wealthy, and influential.

The Ptolemies have their eyes directed outward to the eastern Mediterranean world in which they seek to play a part.

Egypt is their basis of power, their granary, and the source of their wealth.

Under the early Ptolemies, the culture is exclusively Greek.

Greek is the language of the court, the army, and the administration.

The Ptolemies found the university, the museum, and the library at Alexandria and build the lighthouse at Pharos.

A canal to the Red Sea is opened, and Greek sailors explore new trade routes.

Whereas many Egyptians adopt Greek speech, dress, and much of Greek culture, the Greeks also borrow much from the Egyptians, particularly in religion.

In this way, a mixed culture is formed along with a hybrid art that combines Egyptian themes with elements of Hellenistic culture.

Examples of this are the grandiose temples built by the Ptolemies at Edfu (present-day Idfu) and Dendera (present-day Dandarah).

Near East (333–322 BCE): Alexander’s Conquests and the Macedonian Empire

The year 333 BCE inaugurates the Hellenistic Age in the eastern Mediterranean and the Near East, as Alexander III of Macedon decisively defeats the Persian Empire, ushering in profound geopolitical and cultural transformations across the region.

Alexander’s conquest begins with significant military victories at the battles of the Granicus (334 BCE) and the Issus (333 BCE). Following these triumphs, he systematically campaigns through Asia Minor, the Levant, Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia. Alexander’s occupation of Egypt marks a pivotal moment as he is welcomed as pharaoh, reflecting his strategic adoption of local governance and religious practices to solidify his rule.

The decisive battle at Gaugamela (331 BCE) culminates in the collapse of the Persian Empire and the flight of Persian King Darius III, allowing Alexander to assume control of the vast Persian territories. However, his dominion remains challenged, necessitating continued military efforts to consolidate authority. Alexander integrates various conquered peoples by adapting administrative structures, encouraging intermarriage between Macedonians and local populations, and founding new cities to anchor his empire, notably Alexandria in Egypt (331 BCE).

While Alexander continues his ambitious military expeditions into Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, his increasingly weary troops mutiny, compelling his return westward. His remarkable empire-building is abruptly curtailed by his premature death from fever in Babylon in 323 BCE.

Alexander’s sudden demise precipitates immediate succession crises, resolved temporarily through the Partition of Babylon (323 BCE), orchestrated primarily by Perdiccas. Macedonian generals, including Ptolemy Soter, Seleucus, Antigonus Monophthalmus, and Antipater, claim governance over fragmented portions of Alexander's territories, setting the stage for prolonged conflicts among these Diadochi (successors).

Philip III Arrhidaeus, Alexander’s half-brother, is installed as nominal king alongside Alexander's infant son, Alexander IV, under the regency of Perdiccas. Meanwhile, the Lamian War (323–322 BCE) erupts in Greece, involving Athens and allied city-states against Macedonian control, ultimately resulting in a Macedonian victory and reinforcing Macedonian hegemony in the region.

By 322 BCE, the Near East stands at the cusp of significant fragmentation, poised between Alexander’s unifying legacy and the divisive ambitions of his successors, signaling a prolonged era of Hellenistic influence and rivalry.

The Persians counterattack during the winter of 333-332 BCE by land in Asia Minor—where they are defeated by Antigonus, the Macedonian satrap of Greater Phrygia—and by sea, recapturing a number of cities and islands.

Apelles, probably born at Colophon in Ionia, is active during the latter half of the fourth century BCE as court painter to and a friend of Alexander the Great and Alexander's father, the Macedonian king, Philip II.

Alexander refuses to let any other painter portray him.

Generous to his contemporaries, Apelles establishes the reputation of the great but unappreciated artist Protogenes of Rhodes by paying high prices for his work.

Much praised for his realism, Apelles uses only four earth colors—black, white, red, and yellow.

Noted for his graceful figures and composition, fine line quality, spatial depth, and avoidance of excessive detail, Apelles is also a theoretician who produces volumes of criticism.

His two most praised works are an equestrian portrait, Antigonus the One-Eyed, and Artemis Mingling with a Group of Virgins. (All of Apelles’ works are lost, but later Roman writers Pliny the Elder and Lucian, who considered him the greatest painter, describes some of the works.

Florentine painter Sandro Botticelli during the Renaissance, will attempt to recreate two of them: these versions are called Birth of Venus and Calumny of Apelles.

Alexander's ongoing plans are abandoned by common consent among his generals, who have to be content with the office of governor.

In the distribution of satrapies that follows Alexander's death, Lysimachus, one of Alexander's bodyguards during the conquest of Asia, is assigned one of the less attractive governorships, that of Thrace.

Antigonus Monophthalmos (“The One-Eyed”), governor of Phrygia for almost ten years, has shown himself a brave soldier and competent administrator; his firmness and tact are popular with the Greek cities.

Antigonus, who like Antipater is not in Babylon at the time of Alexander's death, now receives also from Perdiccas the governorship of Pamphylia and Lycia formerly vested in Ptolemy.

In the distribution of Alexander's empire after his death, Cleomenes, a Greek of Naucratis, had been left in Egypt as hyparch under Ptolemy, who puts him to death on the suspicion of his favoring Perdiccas.

The effect, if not also a cause, of this act is that Ptolemy comes into possession of the treasures of Cleomenes, which amount to eight thousand talents.

As satrap of Egypt, with the adjacent Libyan and Arabian regions, Ptolemy will methodically take advantage of the geographic isolation of the Nile territory to make it a great Hellenistic power.

He takes steps to improve internal administration.

Alexandria, which from its inception had been meant to embody its founder great idea of a fusion of races and cultures in his planned empire, seems to have included Jews among its earliest settlers.

The Jewish population will grow to be substantial, with an Jewish community well established in the city by the middle of the third century BCE.

Perdiccas, wielding wide authority in Asia as “supreme general” and regent of the Macedonian empire, conquers Cappadocia in 322 and installs as satrap (provincial governor) his most reliable and efficient subordinate, Eumenes of Cardia, Alexander's former secretary.