The Middle East: 765–622 BCE

Imperial Decline and Urartian Expansion

Beginning around 765 BCE, the Assyrian Empire experiences significant decline, marked by ominous events such as the eclipse of 763 BCE, devastating plagues, and internal revolts. This instability severely undermines Assyrian authority, enabling Urartu—a kingdom centered around Lake Van—to ascend as a powerful northern rival. Under King Argishtis I, Urartu expands dramatically, founding cities like Erebouni (modern Yerevan), temporarily dominating northern Syria, and even threatening Babylon. At its height, Urartu controls Armenia, parts of Georgia, and extensive regions of northern Mesopotamia, significantly challenging Assyrian dominance.

Tiglath-Pileser III and Assyrian Resurgence

Tiglath-Pileser III’s accession in 745 BCE dramatically reverses Assyrian fortunes. He quickly stabilizes the empire, implementing crucial military reforms by creating a permanent standing army and an effective bureaucracy. Between 740 and 732 BCE, Tiglath-Pileser leads decisive campaigns, defeating Syrian coalitions, capturing Damascus—the heart of the Aramaean kingdom—and annexing vassal states in eastern Anatolia. His actions involve extensive deportations, notably from northern Israel, integrating these regions firmly into Assyria. He also imposes tribute on Arabian tribes and reasserts control over Babylon, consolidating Assyria’s southern frontier.

Sargon II’s Conquests and Architectural Legacy

Sargon II significantly expands Assyrian domination, capturing strategic cities such as Carchemish in 717 BCE and weakening Urartu with a major campaign in 714 BCE. He commemorates these achievements by building a grand new capital, Dur Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad), featuring monumental gateways guarded by colossal winged bulls, ornate temples, and lavishly decorated royal palaces. Despite his successes, Sargon falls in battle against the Cimmerians in 705 BCE, marking a critical turning point for Assyria.

Sennacherib’s Rule and Babylonian Revolts

Sennacherib relocates the Assyrian capital to Nineveh, transforming it into a monumental city. His reign is dominated by internal rebellions, notably in Babylon, incited by the persistent Chaldean prince Marduk-apla-iddina II. In a brutal act in 689 BCE, Sennacherib razes Babylon, deeply shocking Mesopotamian society and perceived as sacrilegious. This ruthless act contributes to his assassination in 681 BCE, viewed contemporaneously as divine retribution.

Esarhaddon’s Diplomacy and Reconstruction

Ascending amidst turmoil, Esarhaddon quickly stabilizes the empire through diplomatic acumen. He rebuilds Babylon, restoring key religious sites, notably the Esagila temple, thereby regaining Babylonian favor. Esarhaddon adeptly manages threats from Cimmerians and Scythians through strategic alliances, securing Assyrian borders and revitalizing religious and cultural institutions across both Assyria and Babylonia.

Ashurbanipal: Scholar-King and Library Builder

Ashurbanipal rules with scholarly distinction, establishing a renowned library in Nineveh, amassing extensive collections of cuneiform texts from across Mesopotamia. Highly educated, he demonstrates scholarly and mathematical prowess, including the rare ability to interpret ancient Sumerian scripts. However, his reign is also notorious for cruelty towards defeated enemies, vividly depicted in reliefs and inscriptions. Although appearing peaceful later, underlying tensions and succession disputes foreshadow Assyrian fragility.

Fragmentation and Rise of Babylon and Media

Following Ashurbanipal’s death, Assyria plunges into a severe succession crisis involving multiple contenders, including Ashur-etil-ilani, Sinsharishkun, and general Sin-shumu-lishir. This internal chaos critically weakens Assyria. Concurrently, Nabopolassar leads a successful Chaldean rebellion, establishing Babylonian independence by 629 BCE. At the same time, Cyaxares of Media overthrows Scythian dominance, consolidating Media and preparing to confront Assyria. These developments set the stage for a decisive coalition of Babylonians and Medes, poised to end Assyrian dominance.

The Middle East: 633–622 BCE

Succession Crisis and Assyrian Instability

Following Ashurbanipal's death, the Assyrian Empire quickly descends into chaos amid fierce succession disputes. Contenders for the throne include his sons Ashur-etil-ilani and Sinsharishkun, as well as prominent general Sin-shumu-lishir. The power struggle severely weakens Assyrian authority, leading to widespread internal strife and fragmentation of the central administration.

Rise of Nabopolassar and Babylonian Independence

Capitalizing on Assyria’s internal turmoil, the Chaldean leader Nabopolassar successfully revolts in 629 BCE, reasserting Babylonian independence from Assyrian domination. Nabopolassar captures Babylon, establishing himself as the new king and beginning a dynasty that will eventually challenge and overthrow Assyrian hegemony in the region.

Median Revival and Threat to Assyria

In the east, the Medes—under the leadership of the ambitious Cyaxares—capitalize on Assyria’s vulnerability. Cyaxares had earlier succeeded in freeing Media from Scythian control and now asserts his rule over the Persians in southwestern Iran. By the mid-620s BCE, the Medes actively prepare for war against the declining Assyrian Empire, establishing the foundations for a powerful alliance with Babylonia that will eventually lead to the empire’s downfall.

The contenders in the power struggle that follows Ashurbanipal’s death include Ashur-etil-ilani, his brother Sinsharishkun, general Sin-shumu-lishir, and the eventual new king of Babylonia, Nabopolassar.

Who fought against whom is not certain; however, the internal strife weakens Assyria to such a degree that a coalition of Medes, Persians, and Babylonians will be able to be destroy it in 609 BCE.

The Assyrian civil war enables the Chaldeans, led by Nabopolassar, to revolt and proclaim Babylonia independent of Assyria, occupying Babylon in 629.

The Middle East: 621–610 BCE

Fall of Assyria and Rise of Babylon and Media

In 621 BCE, Cyaxares, the ambitious king of the Medes, allies with Nabopolassar, ruler of Babylon, significantly altering the balance of power in the Middle East. The alliance between these two formidable kingdoms poses a critical threat to the already declining Assyrian Empire. With coordinated military campaigns, they swiftly move against Assyrian strongholds.

By 615 BCE, the combined Median and Babylonian forces capture the strategically important frontier city of Arraphka, followed closely by the sacking and destruction of Ashur, the religious heart of Assyria, in 614 BCE. These significant victories cripple Assyrian power, setting the stage for a decisive strike against the empire's heartland.

The ultimate assault occurs in 612 BCE with the dramatic siege and destruction of Nineveh, the Assyrian capital famed for its magnificent palaces, temples, and extensive library containing thousands of clay tablets. Nineveh's fall marks a catastrophic end to Assyrian dominance in Mesopotamia.

Surviving Assyrian forces regroup under their remaining leaders and retreat to the northwest, establishing a temporary stronghold at Harran. However, Median and Babylonian forces quickly pursue them, capturing and partially destroying Harran in 610 BCE. This defeat effectively extinguishes Assyrian political and military power, ushering in a new geopolitical era dominated by the rising powers of Babylonia and Media.

Median Consolidation and Cultural Legacy

Under Cyaxares, the Medes consolidate their gains, absorbing territories formerly under Assyrian influence and strengthening their dominion across northern and western Iran. Ecbatana becomes a prominent center, signaling the emergence of the Median Empire as a significant regional power.

Babylonian Revival

Simultaneously, Nabopolassar solidifies control over Babylonia, marking the start of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. His reign initiates substantial rebuilding efforts and cultural revival, laying the foundations for Babylon's subsequent prominence under his son, Nebuchadnezzar II.

Thus, the decade from 621 to 610 BCE decisively reshapes the Middle East, as the fall of Assyria opens new avenues for Median and Babylonian ascendancy, profoundly influencing the region's historical trajectory.