Bonaventure

The Intellectual Foundations of Scholasticism: Tommaso d'Aquino, Bonaventure, and Franciscan Thought

Tommaso d'Aquino: The Early Years of a Dominican Scholar

Tommaso d'Aquino (Thomas Aquinas), born into the Counts of Aquino at Roccasecca in central Italy, was destined for a monastic career from childhood. At the age of five, he was placed in the Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino, where his uncle had served as abbot. His family harbored high ecclesiastical ambitions for him, possibly envisioning him as a future abbot or bishop.

However, the political turmoil of the era disrupted these plans. When Monte Cassino became a battlegroundbetween papal and imperial forces, Tommaso withdrew and enrolled at the University of Naples, where he first encountered members of the Dominican Order.

Despite violent opposition from his family, the twenty-year-old Tommaso resolved to join the Dominican friars in 1244. His family, outraged by his decision to choose mendicant poverty over Benedictine prestige, attempted to kidnap and detain him, but he ultimately escaped.

In 1245, Tommaso traveled north to study at the University of Paris, where he became a disciple of Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus), the foremost Aristotelian scholar of the age. This mentorship laid the groundwork for his eventual synthesis of Christian theology and Aristotelian philosophy, which would define Scholastic thought.

Bonaventure and the Franciscan Intellectual Tradition

Unlike Aquinas, who pursued a Dominican path, Bonaventure was a Franciscan scholar whose thought would shape the Franciscan school of theology.

Born in Tuscany, Bonaventure studied philosophy and the arts at the University of Paris from 1234 to 1242. By 1243, at the age of twenty-six, he joined the Franciscan Order and subsequently studied theology under Alexander of Hales, a pioneer of Franciscan Scholasticism.

Bonaventure’s Franciscan approach to theology emphasized mystical contemplation, divine illumination, and a more Platonic view of knowledge, distinguishing it from Aquinas’s Aristotelian logic and empirical reasoning. His thought, which deeply influenced later Franciscan scholars, was steeped in Augustinian tradition and saw knowledge as a pathway to God through divine grace rather than pure reason alone.

John of la Rochelle and the Franciscan Summa

John of la Rochelle, another Franciscan theologian, was a disciple of Alexander of Hales and became Master of Theology under his guidance. He is credited with compiling the Summa Fratris Alexandri, a foundational text of Franciscan theology. This work would influence the formation of a distinct Franciscan school, shaping thinkers such as Bonaventure and later Duns Scotus.

Legacy of These Thinkers

The mid-13th century saw the rise of two dominant Scholastic traditions:

• The Dominican Scholasticism of Thomas Aquinas, grounded in Aristotelian logic, systematic reasoning, and a synthesis of faith and reason.
• The Franciscan Scholasticism of Bonaventure, emphasizing mysticism, divine illumination, and a Platonic-Augustinian approach to theology.

These competing yet complementary schools of thought would define medieval Christian philosophy, influencing Catholic theology, university education, and intellectual traditions for centuries to come.

The Recognition of Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure at the University of Paris (1257) and the Founding of the College of Sorbonne

In 1257, Thomas Aquinas (Dominican) and Bonaventure (Franciscan), two of the most brilliant theological minds of their generation, were finally granted the degree of Doctor of Theology at the University of Paris, after prolonged resistance from the university authorities.

University Resistance and Papal Intervention

• Both Aquinas and Bonaventure had previously lectured only as licentiates, a preliminary stage before full recognition as doctors of theology.
• The university, dominated by secular clergy and older academic traditions, was reluctant to confer doctoral status on members of the mendicant orders (Dominicans and Franciscans), who were increasingly seen as challengers to the traditional academic hierarchy.
• Pope Alexander IV’s representatives intervened, threatening the university authorities with excommunication if they did not recognize the two scholars.
• Under this pressure, the university finally conceded, formally granting Aquinas and Bonaventure their doctorates.

This event marked a major victory for the mendicant orders in their struggle for intellectual legitimacy within Europe’s most prestigious center of theological learning.

The Foundation of the College of Sorbonne (c. 1257)

That same year, Robert de Sorbon, chaplain to King Louis IX (Saint Louis), established a college for theological studies within the University of Paris. This institution, later known as the Collège de Sorbonne, became one of the most renowned centers of theological education in Europe.

• Initially intended as a residence and study center for poor theology students, the Sorbonne soon evolved into the core of the university’s theological faculty.
• Over time, its name became synonymous with the University of Paris itself, a status it would retain through the medieval, early modern, and contemporary periods.

Impact and Legacy

• The recognition of Aquinas and Bonaventure solidified the role of Dominican and Franciscan theology in the intellectual and doctrinal development of the Church.
• The Sorbonne’s establishment reinforced the University of Paris’s preeminence as a center of Scholastic learning, influencing theological and philosophical thought for centuries.
• Both Aquinas and Bonaventure, having finally attained the highest academic distinction, went on to shape the future of Catholic theology—Aquinas through his systematic synthesis of faith and reason, and Bonaventure through his mystical and Augustinian approach to divine knowledge.

The University of Paris, and particularly the Sorbonne, would remain a leading institution of Christian theology and higher education into the 21st century.

The Conflict Between Aristotelian and Augustinian Thought in 13th-Century Scholasticism

During the mid-13th century, Albertus Magnus and his student Thomas Aquinas sought to synthesize Aristotle’s philosophy with Augustinian theology, establishing a rational framework for Christian thought. Their position maintained that:

• Aristotle was correct in matters within the grasp of reason (e.g., logic, natural sciences, ethics).
• What is beyond reason—divine mysteries such as the Trinity and the Incarnation—could only be known through faith.

This Aristotelian synthesis profoundly influenced Scholastic theology, but it also provoked controversy within the Church. More extreme Aristotelian schools emerged, some interpreting Aristotle in a way that seemed to undermine Christian doctrine. The resulting tensions led to Church condemnations of certain Aristotelian positions, as well as aspects of Aquinas’s and Albertus’s teachings.

Bonaventure’s Augustinian Mysticism and Opposition to Aristotelianism

At the same time, Bonaventure, a Franciscan contemporary of Aquinas, defended a more mystical, Augustinian approach to Christian knowledge.

• While he was well acquainted with Aristotelian philosophy, Bonaventure feared its use in Christian theology, believing it could diminish divine revelation’s primacy.
• Instead, he favored Saint Augustine’s more traditional, introspective philosophy, which often stood in opposition to the rational synthesis developed by Aquinas.

Bonaventure’s Defense of the Mendicants and His Theological Works

• During his years at the University of Paris, Bonaventure successfully defended the Mendicant orders’ right to teach, responding to criticism from secular clergy and university authorities.
• Between 1255 and 1256, he set forth his mystical, essentially Augustinian view of Christian knowledge in Retracing the Arts to Theology (De Reductione Artium ad Theologiam).
  • This treatise proposed that all human knowledge—including philosophy, science, and the liberal arts—should ultimately be oriented toward theology and divine truth.
• On February 2, 1257, Bonaventure was elected Minister General of the Franciscan Order, leading him to retire from university teaching to focus on reforming and guiding the Franciscan movement.
• In 1259, he expanded his Augustinian mystical theories in The Itinerary of the Mind into God (Itinerarium Mentis in Deum), a spiritual guide to divine union that became a cornerstone of Franciscan theology.

Aquinas in Rome: Service to the Papal Court (1259)

While Bonaventure continued to shape Franciscan thought, Thomas Aquinas left Paris for Rome in 1259, where he was appointed as an attaché to the papal court of Pope Alexander IV.

• During this period, Aquinas engaged in theological and administrative work for the Papacy, further refining his systematic approach to faith and reason.
• His time in Rome allowed him to develop his most influential works, including sections of the Summa Theologica, in which he continued his integration of Aristotelian thought into Christian doctrine.

Long-Term Impact of the Aristotelian-Augustinian Divide

The intellectual divide between Aquinas’s Aristotelian synthesis and Bonaventure’s Augustinian mysticismpersisted throughout the Middle Ages, shaping the Dominican and Franciscan schools of theology.

• The Dominicans, led by Aquinas, defended the use of reason and Aristotle in theology.
• The Franciscans, influenced by Bonaventure, emphasized mystical experience and divine illumination.

This theological tension would later influence medieval and Renaissance philosophy, as well as Church teachings on faith, reason, and divine knowledge.

The Early Life and Academic Rise of Thomas Aquinas (c. 1225–1259)

Thomas Aquinas, born Tommaso d’Aquino around 1225 at his father Count Landulf's castle of Roccasecca, in the Kingdom of Naples, was of noble lineage. His mother, Theodora, Countess of Theate, connected him to the Hohenstaufen dynasty of Holy Roman Emperors, making his early career prospects particularly significant.

Early Education and Dominican Vocation

• Aquinas began his education at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino, where his uncle, Sinibald, served as abbot. His family intended for him to follow his uncle’s path and pursue a prestigious ecclesiastical career.
• At age 10, he was sent to the University of Naples, where he spent six years (c. 1239–1244) studying the liberal arts, philosophy, and theology. It was here that he encountered members of the Order of Preachers (Dominicans), who sought to recruit the most promising young scholars into their rapidly expanding mendicant order.

The Dominicans and Franciscans represented a new challenge to the well-established clerical hierarchy of medieval Europe, prioritizing poverty, preaching, and academic rigor over monastic isolation and traditional clerical privileges.

Family Resistance and Dominican Entry

• At 16, Thomas declared his desire to join the Dominicans, but his noble family strongly opposed this decision, seeing it as a betrayal of their ambitions for him.
• His family kidnapped him and held him in confinement for over a year, attempting to dissuade him from the mendicant life.
• Finally, in 1244, Pope Innocent IV intervened, and Thomas officially became a Dominican friar.

Studies with Albertus Magnus and the Paris Controversy

• Recognizing his extraordinary intellect, Thomas’s superiors sent him to Cologne, where he studied under Albertus Magnus, one of the most influential philosophers and theologians of the age.
• In 1245, Thomas accompanied Albertus to the University of Paris, where he engaged in the controversy over the rights of the mendicant orders to teach at the university.
• The secular clergy of the university, led by Guillaume de Saint-Amour, opposed the mendicants’ growing influence, arguing that they should not have equal privileges in teaching and administration.
• Thomas defended his order, writing pamphlets and speeches in support of the Dominican cause, ultimately defeating Guillaume de Saint-Amour in theological debate.
• With papal backing, the mendicants secured their teaching privileges, and Thomas graduated as a Bachelor of Theology in 1248.

Teaching Career and Theological Development

• In 1248, Aquinas returned to Cologne, where he was appointed second lecturer and magister studentium under Albertus Magnus.
• Over the following years, he developed into a comprehensive scholar, permanently adopting Aristotle’s method of logical inquiry, which he would later synthesize with Christian theology.

Recognition as Doctor of Theology (1256) and Advisory Role

• In 1256, Thomas and his friend Bonaventure were both granted the title of Doctor of Theology, a milestone that allowed them to lecture independently in Paris, Rome, and various Italian cities.
• He frequently undertook long and arduous journeys, both for academic purposes and to advise the papacy on matters of theology, law, and state affairs.
• In 1259, Thomas was present at a major Dominican assembly in Valenciennes, marking his growing influence within his order and his role in shaping Dominican intellectual priorities.

Legacy of His Early Career

By the end of the 1250s, Thomas Aquinas had established himself as:

• One of the most brilliant minds in Christian theology, synthesizing Aristotelian reason with Augustinian faith.
• A key defender of the mendicant orders, securing their place in university life.
• An advisor to the papal court, shaping the relationship between the Church and philosophical inquiry.

His work during these years laid the foundation for his later magnum opus, the Summa Theologica, and his enduring influence on Catholic theology, philosophy, and Western intellectual tradition.

The Growth of the Franciscan Order and John of Parma’s Leadership (1247–1257)

The Franciscans, formally known as the Order of Friars Minor, trace their origins to Francis of Assisi, who founded the order in the early 13th century. Following papal recognition in 1221, the order rapidly expanded, emphasizing poverty, preaching, and pastoral care while also establishing itself as a scholarly and intellectual force within the Catholic Church.

John of Parma and the Expansion of Franciscan Influence

• In 1247, John of Parma, a strict Observationist, became Minister General of the Friars Minor.
• His tenure was marked by a return to the rigorous ideals of Franciscan poverty, earning him the favor of Popes Innocent IV and Alexander IV.
• Under his leadership, the Franciscan Order grew in influence, particularly in academia, where friars played a key role in medieval theological and philosophical debates.

Franciscan Scholarship and the Mendicant Controversy

• Pope Alexander IV issued provisions supporting the Franciscans in education, sanctioning the establishment of theological institutes in Franciscan houses.
• This strengthened the Franciscan presence in universities, particularly at the University of Paris, where the Mendicant Controversy erupted.

The Mendicant Controversy: Franciscans vs. Secular Clergy

• The Mendicant Orders, particularly the Franciscans and Dominicans, faced strong opposition from secular Masters at the University of Paris and the Bishops of France.
• These critics resented the growing influence of the friars in university teaching and ecclesiastical affairs, arguing that they threatened the privileges of the traditional clergy.
• John of Parma actively defended the Franciscan Order, and Pope Alexander IV supported the mendicants, ensuring their continued presence in theological institutions.

Legacy of John of Parma’s Leadership

• John of Parma’s commitment to academic and theological pursuits helped solidify the Franciscans’ intellectual reputation, particularly through scholars like Bonaventure.
• His strict adherence to Franciscan ideals made him controversial within the order, leading to his resignation in 1257.
• Despite this, his tenure strengthened the Franciscans' role in both ecclesiastical governance and university life, securing papal support in their conflicts with secular clergy.

The Franciscan Order, under John’s leadership, transitioned from a charismatic movement of mendicant preachers to a formidable intellectual and political institution, leaving a lasting impact on medieval Christendom.

The Arsenites in Constantinople and elsewhere fanatically oppose the pro-Latin policy of Eastern Roman Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, professing obedience to the Holy See in the name of their emperor, accept papal supremacy over the Greek Church.

Bonaventure, after having successfully defended his order against the reproaches of the anti-mendicant party, had been elected Minister General of the Franciscan Order.

On November 24, 1265, he had been selected for the post of Archbishop of York; however, he was never consecrated and resigned the appointment in October 1266.

Bonaventure has steered the Franciscans on a moderate and intellectual course that will make them the most prominent order in the Catholic Church until the coming of the Jesuits.

His theology is marked by an attempt completely to integrate faith and reason.

He thinks of Christ as the “one true master” who offers humans knowledge that begins in faith, is developed through rational understanding, and is perfected by mystical union with God.

Bonaventure had been instrumental in procuring the election of Pope Gregory X, who on May 28, 1273, had rewarded him with the title of Cardinal Bishop of Albano, and insisted on his presence at the Second Council of Lyon, convoked to bring about church reform, to launch of a new Crusade to the Holy Land, and to achieve union between the Eastern and Western churches.

Bonaventure and Albertus Magnus are among the better known participants in the council; Thomas Aquinas had died on his way to attend.

The council, convened to consider the liberation of the Holy Land via Crusades and address the East-West Schism with the Eastern church, eventually approves a tithe to support efforts to liberate the Holy Land from Muslims, and works out a tenuous reunion of the two churches (but the Eastern clergy, whose hostility toward the West had greatly intensified after the sacking of Constantinople in 1204 by the Fourth Crusade, will never actually accept it).

The council defines the official Roman Catholic teaching on purgatory (from the Latin purgare, "to cleanse") as the place or state after death where those who have died in a state of grace but not free from imperfection expiate their remaining sins before entering the visible presence of God and the saints. (The damned, on the other hand, go straight to Hell.)

Bonaventure, known as the Seraphic Doctor, resigns soon afterwards as Franciscan minister general on account of illness, which proves mortal.

After his significant contributions lead to a union of the Greek and Latin churches, Bonaventure dies suddenly and in suspicious circumstances on July 15, 1274.

The Catholic Encyclopedia has citations that suggest he was poisoned.