Seven troubled years have followed the Athenian surrender in 413.

For most of this period, there has been war with Carthage and internal convulsions that Carthage constantly seeks to exploit.

Hermocrates had plundered Carthaginian possessions in Sicily from Selinus after 408 BCE, and in response Carthage sends an army to Sicily under Hannibal Mago and Himilco II of the Magonid family, which faces a coalition of Sicilian Greeks under the leadership of Syracuse.

The Syracusans elect one Dionysius, who had begun his working life as a clerk in a public office, as supreme military commander in 406 BCE because of his achievements in the war against Carthage that had begun in 409 BCE.

Hannibal, whose Carthaginian forces return to Sicily, dies during the campaign in a plague that had broken out during the siege of Akragas in 406 BCE, but his brother Himilco forces the city's surrender after eight months, following which the Carthaginian troops plunder and destroy the city.

The destruction of Athens' fleet at Aegospotami effectively ends the Peloponnesian War, and Athens surrenders in the following year.

Sparta has resoundingly failed to destroy the Athenian empire, and in this sense Athens, whatever its financial and human losses, has won the Peloponnesian War.

Thucydides observes that contemporary Greeks were shocked not that Athens eventually fell after the defeat in Sicily, but rather that it fought on for as long as it did, so devastating were the losses suffered.

The Corinthian War, pitting Sparta against a coalition of four allied states, Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos, which are initially backed by Persia, lasts from 395 BCE until 387 BCE.

The immediate cause of the war was a local conflict in northwest Greece in which both Thebes and Sparta intervened.

The results are inconclusive: under the Peace of Antalcidas, dictated by Persia, Ionia is ceded to Persia and the Boeotian league is dissolved, as is the union of Argos and Corinth.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (405–394 BCE): Carthaginian Dominance and Etruscan Decline

The era 405–394 BCE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe witnesses decisive military conflicts, expanding Carthaginian influence, significant shifts in regional power dynamics, and notable Roman territorial expansion amid continued cultural flourishing.

Carthaginian Supremacy in Sicily

During this period, Carthaginian influence peaks under the command of Himilco, who assumes control of the Carthaginian forces in Sicily. Himilco decisively sacks the city of Camarina and repeatedly defeats the forces of Dionysius I, the newly established tyrant of Syracuse. Despite military success, a devastating plague strikes the Carthaginian army, prompting Himilco to negotiate a peace treaty. The treaty solidifies Carthaginian dominance, making cities such as Selinus, Thermae, Akragas, Gela, and Camarina tributary vassals.

Expansion and Resistance under Dionysius I

In response to Carthaginian pressure, Dionysius I intensifies military efforts from 397 BCE, engaging Carthage in renewed conflict. Dionysius concurrently undertakes aggressive campaigns in southern Italy, capturing Rhegium and attacking its allied cities throughout Magna Graecia. With support from the Lucanians, Dionysius devastates territories belonging to Thurii and Croton in defense of the city of Locri, highlighting Syracuse’s regional ambitions and influence.

Roman Expansion and the Fall of Veii

Significant developments also unfold on the Italian mainland, particularly involving the Roman Republic. Rome, under the leadership of the semi-legendary general Marcus Furius Camillus, initiates a prolonged siege of Veii, the wealthiest city within the Etruscan League. In 396 BCE, Rome successfully captures and occupies Veii, significantly extending its influence and territory. This event marks a turning point, initiating the gradual decline of Etruscan dominance in the region.

Celtic Incursions into Northern Italy

This era also witnesses notable Celtic incursions into northern Italy, significantly reshaping the regional landscape. Around 400 BCE, the Senones, a Gallic tribe originating from present-day France, cross the Alps, settle the eastern Italian coast between Ariminum and Ancona, and establish Sena Gallica (modern Sinigaglia) as their capital. Additionally, Celts seize the city of Melpum (present-day Milan) around 396 BCE and found new settlements including Turin and Bononia (modern Bologna), significantly expanding their territorial foothold.

Cultural and Artistic Continuity

Cultural achievements continue alongside these conflicts. Notable Etruscan artistic production remains vibrant, demonstrated by fine metalwork and sculptural accomplishments. The production of red-figure pottery at Orvieto and Chiusi in Etruria flourishes, representing ongoing artistic innovation and maintaining the region’s rich cultural legacy amid political instability.

Legacy of the Era

The era 405–394 BCE dramatically reshapes Mediterranean Southwest Europe, characterized by Carthaginian ascendancy in Sicily, significant Roman territorial expansion, and influential Celtic settlements in northern Italy. These transformations decisively influence regional power dynamics, setting the stage for subsequent historical developments across the Mediterranean.

Himilco, the new Carthaginian commander in Sicily, sacks Camarina and repeatedly defeats the army of Dionysius I, the new tyrant of Syracuse.

The plague strikes the Carthaginian army again, and Himilco agrees to a peace treaty that leaves the Carthaginians in control of all the recent conquests, with Selinus, Thermae, Akragas, Gela and Camarina as tributary vassals.

Carthaginian power is at its peak in Sicily.

Dionysius fights a war with Carthage from 397 BCE; he also carries on an expedition against Rhegium, capturing it and attacking its allied cities in Magna Graecia.

In one campaign, in which he is joined by the Lucanians, he devastates the territories of Thurii and Croton in an attempt to defend Locri.

Veii, the richest city of the Etruscan League, located on the southern border of Etruria, has been alternately at war and in alliance with Rome for over three hundred years.

It eventually falls in 396 BCE to army of the Roman general Camillus.

Veii continues to be occupied after its capture by the Romans.

...Kamarina (present Santa Croceo).

Dionysius I had become supreme commander of Syracuse by this time.

Although Greeks casualties were light, Dionysius evacuated the city, which the Carthaginians plundered the following day.

The Greek army had fallen back to Kamarina after a forced march along with Gelan refugees the day after the sack of Gela.

Dionysius had ordered the citizens of Camarina to leave their city instead of organizing a defense.

While retreating to Syracuse, part of the Greek army rebels and occupies Syracuse, which Dionysius later manages to recapture.

The Carthaginians sack Camarina and ...

The Carthaginians under Himilco, after wintering in the ruins of Akragas, invade Sicily’s southern coast and take the Syracusan cities of Gela and ...

…encamp before Syracuse during the summer.

Plague strikes the Carthaginian army again, and Himilco agrees to a peace treaty that leaves the Carthaginians in control of all the recent conquests, with Selinus, Thermae, Akragas, Gela and Camarina as tributary vassals.

Greeks are allowed to settle in these cities while Dionysius is confirmed as the ruler of Syracuse.

Carthage has reached the apex of her control in Sicily which she will not again reach until the death of Agathocles in 289 BCE.

Some Syracusans had tryied to stage a coup in 405 BCE, but Dionysius had managed to defeat the rebels through speedy action and enemy bungling.

After the treaty with Carthage was signed, Syracuse is hemmed in by the territories of Kamarina and Leontini, the former a vassal of Carthage and the latter hostile to Syracuse, while the Syracusan rebels settle in the city of Aetna.

Dionysius’ victory over the democratic Syracuse represents both the very worst and the very best of the mercenary-leader.

Dionysius’ career as a despot occurs after he is given six hundred personal mercenaries to guard his person after faking an attack on his own life.

He is able to increase this guard to one thousand.

Gradually consolidating his power, he establishes himself as a tyrant and imposes his mercenaries on all parts of the polis community.

Such an act truly eliminates any suggestion that democracy is still in force in Syracuse.

Dionysius breaks the peace treaty in 404 BCE by attacking the Sicel city of Herbessus.

Carthage does nothing, but part of the Syracusan army joins the Syracusan rebels from Aetna, and with help from Messina and Rhegion, manage to besiege Dionysius in Syracuse.

Dionysius considers fleeing the beleaguered city, and only the bungling of the rebels and the help of some Italian mercenaries save the day for him.

Dionysius destroys Naxos in 403 BCE, expelling or enslaving its Greek population and giving its territory to the Sicels.