Henry’s queen, Margaret of Anjou, strong-willed in contrast to her feeble husband, has established an ascendancy at the court, together with the powerful Beaufort family, headed by Edmond Beaufort, Duke of Somerset.

Cade’s rebellion, though unsuccessful in its aims, had eroded royal authority, enabling Richard, Duke of York, to return in autumn 1450 from his new post as Lieutenant of Ireland to England, where he had been recognized as heir to the childless King Henry VI.

He had marched on London, demanding Somerset's removal and reform of the government.

At this stage, few of the nobles support such drastic action, and York had been forced to submit to superior force at Blackheath.

He has been imprisoned for much of 1452 and 1453 but is released after swearing not to take arms against the court.

The loss of Bordeaux in 1453 has turned the English towards the Yorkists and against the Lancastrian Beaufort family.

The increasing discord at court is mirrored in the country as a whole, where noble families engage in private feuds and show increasing disrespect for the royal authority and for the courts of law.

The Percy-Neville feud is the best-known of these private wars, but others are being conducted freely.

In many cases, they are fought between old-established families, and formerly minor nobility raised in power and influence by Henry IV in the aftermath of the rebellions against him.

The quarrel between the Percys—long the Earls of Northumberland—and the comparatively upstart Nevilles follows this pattern, as does the feud between the Courtenays and Bonvilles in Cornwall and Devon.

A factor in these feuds is the presence of large numbers of soldiers discharged from the English armies that had been defeated in France.

Nobles engage many of these to mount raids, or to pack courts of justice with their supporters, intimidating suitors, witnesses and judges.

This growing civil discontent, the abundance of feuding nobles with private armies, and corruption in Henry VI's court form a political climate ripe for civil war.

With the king so easily manipulated, power rests with those closest to him at court, in other words Somerset and the Lancastrian faction.

Richard and the Yorkist faction, who tend to be physically placed further away from the seat of power, find their power slowly being stripped away.

Royal power also starts to slip, as Henry is persuaded to grant many royal lands and estates to the Lancastrians.

Margaret’s position is greatly reinforced in October 1453 by the birth of a son, Edward, whose status as royal heir presents a problem for the Yorkist claim.

However, Henry suffers the first of several bouts of complete mental collapse, during which he fails even to recognize his newborn son.

A Council of Regency is set up in April 1454, headed by the Duke of York, who still remains popular with the people, as Lord Protector.

York soon asserts his power with ever-greater boldness (although there is no proof that he had aspirations to the throne at this early stage).

He imprisons Somerset and backs his Neville allies (his brother-in-law, the Earl of Salisbury, and Salisbury's son, the Earl of Warwick), in their continuing feud with the Earl of Northumberland, a powerful supporter of Henry.

York and Salisbury, faced with the threat of attack from the Percys, and with Margaret of Anjou trying to gain the support of new king James III of Scotland, on December 2 head north.

With them goes York's son Edmund, Earl of Rutland.

They arrive at Sandal Castle on 21 December to find the situation bad and getting worse.

Forces loyal to Henry control the city of York, and nearby Pontefract Castle is also in hostile hands.

York and his forces leave Sandal on December 30, possibly to obtain supplies.

Intercepted near Wakefield, both York and Rutland are killed, the latter executed the following day together with the captured Salisbury.

Margaret orders the heads of all three placed on the gates of York.

The Act of Accord and the events of Wakefield leave the eighteen-year-old Edward, Earl of March, York's eldest son, as Duke of York and heir to the throne.

Salisbury's death leaves Warwick, his heir, as the biggest landowner in England.

Warwick, with the captive King Henry in his train, has been made outstandingly wealthy by his father’s death.

Henry and Margaret, who have been waiting in York with their son Edward, flee north when they hear the outcome.

Many of the surviving Lancastrian nobles switch allegiance to King Edward, and those who do not are driven back to the northern border areas and a few castles in Wales.

Edward advances to take York where he is confronted with the rotting heads of his father, his brother and Salisbury, which are replaced with those of defeated Lancastrian lords such as the notorious John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford of Skipton-Craven, who is blamed for the execution of Edward's brother Edmund, Earl of Rutland, after the Battle of Wakefield.

Edward IV's official coronation takes place in June 1461 in London, where he receives a rapturous welcome from his supporters; he will be able to rule in relative peace for ten years.

After Edward’s ascension, members of the Percy family, who have supported the Lancastrian king against his Yorkist rival, lose their earldom and estates.

Edward’s nine-year-old brother becomes the Duke of Gloucester.

Warwick, in supporting York’s son in his successful bid for the throne, and because of his great wealth and power, becomes known as the Kingmaker.

Henry and Margaret lead an invasion of Carlisle later in 1461 but, lacking money, they are easily repulsed by Edward's men who are rooting out the remaining Lancastrian forces in the northern counties.

Northwest Europe (1468–1479 CE): Dynastic Turmoil and Cultural Renaissance

England: Wars of the Roses and Royal Turmoil

The Wars of the Roses escalated dramatically, driven by shifting allegiances and intermittent conflict. Initially secure, King Edward IV faced substantial setbacks, notably losing his throne briefly in 1470 due to the Lancastrian resurgence orchestrated by Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, famously known as the "Kingmaker." Warwick temporarily restored the Lancastrian monarch Henry VI, but Edward IV decisively reclaimed power at the pivotal Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury in 1471, resulting in the deaths of Warwick and Edward of Westminster, Henry VI’s heir. Shortly thereafter, Henry VI himself perished under suspicious circumstances in the Tower of London, consolidating Edward IV’s reign. Yet Edward’s earlier secret marriage to Elizabeth Woodville continued to alienate powerful supporters, leaving underlying tensions unresolved.

This period also saw profound cultural advancements with William Caxton, an English merchant and printer, establishing England’s first printing press in 1476 at Westminster. Caxton's press issued its first dated English printed work, Dictes or Sayenges of the Phylosophers (1477), marking a pivotal transformation in the spread and standardization of English literature. Concurrently, Sir Thomas Malory completed his seminal prose romance, Morte Darthur, around 1470, a text that vividly reimagined Arthurian legend and deeply influenced England’s literary culture.

Scotland: Cultural Flourishing Amid Internal Dissent

In Scotland, King James III grappled with ongoing internal dissent exacerbated by his favoritism towards low-born courtiers, causing substantial friction with traditional nobility. Despite political instability, the Scottish Renaissance flourished, driven by significant royal patronage of architecture and the arts. The period saw continued progress in literature and learning, enhancing Scotland’s distinctive cultural identity even amidst political turbulence.

Ireland: Consolidation of Gaelic Power

Gaelic influence significantly strengthened throughout Ireland. Powerful Irish dynasties, notably the Fitzgeralds and O'Neills, maintained substantial autonomy, vigorously opposing English authority beyond The Pale. The era marked a period of considerable cultural output, particularly in poetry and native Irish legal traditions, reinforcing Gaelic identity and pride despite repeated English attempts to assert greater control.

Scandinavia: Continued Kalmar Union Frictions

In Scandinavia, the Kalmar Union under Christian I faced persistent internal challenges, particularly from Sweden, which frequently contested Danish hegemony. Christian’s authority remained precarious, maintained primarily through diplomacy, marriage alliances, and occasional military actions to quell rebellions. The ongoing tensions within the union underscored its inherent fragility and presaged future conflicts.

Iceland: Cultural Preservation in Isolation

Iceland remained committed to preserving its unique literary heritage despite political marginalization and geographic isolation. Icelanders continued their diligent preservation of sagas and poetry, maintaining a vibrant cultural legacy central to their national identity. Manuscript production flourished, significantly contributing to the historical and literary richness of the region.

Cultural and Artistic Achievements

Northwest Europe experienced considerable artistic and intellectual advancement during this era. English composers, notably influenced by John Dunstaple, further refined polyphonic music through sophisticated harmonies, while ecclesiastical architecture, exemplified by developments at York Minster, increasingly reflected the distinctive Perpendicular Gothic style. This period also saw the proliferation of literary and poetic works, bolstered by the transformative impact of Caxton’s printing press, fundamentally changing literary dissemination and accessibility.

Legacy of the Era

By 1479 CE, Northwest Europe was deeply shaped by ongoing dynastic conflicts, significant cultural advancements, and enduring regional tensions. Edward IV temporarily stabilized England, Scotland advanced culturally amid internal discord, Ireland saw enhanced Gaelic authority, and the Kalmar Union navigated persistent internal challenges. These diverse dynamics collectively defined the social, political, and cultural landscapes of Northwest Europe, laying foundations that would profoundly influence subsequent historical developments.

The term Wars of the Roses refers to the informal heraldic badges of the two rival houses of Lancaster and York, which had been contending for power, and ultimately for the throne, since the late 1450s.

The Yorkist claimant, Edward, Earl of March, had in 1461 been proclaimed King Edward IV and defeated the supporters of the weak, intermittently insane Lancastrian king Henry VI at the Battle of Towton.

Lancastrian revolts in the far north of England had been defeated in 1464, and the fugitive King Henry had been captured and imprisoned the next year.

His Queen, Margaret of Anjou, and their thirteen-year-old son Edward of Westminster, had been exiled and impoverished in France.

Edward IV's hold on the throne appears temporarily to be secure.

Edward IV owes his victory in large measure to the support of his cousin, the powerful Earl of Warwick, known as the "Kingmaker.” Edward IV has fallen out with Warwick, however, and also alienated many friends and even family members by favoring the family of his queen, Elizabeth Woodville, the daughter of an obscure Lancastrian knight, whom he had married in secret.

Warwick had tried first to supplant Edward with his younger brother George, Duke of Clarence, and then to restore Henry VI to the throne.

This results in two years of rapid changes of fortune, before Edward IV once again wins complete victories at Barnet in April 1471, where Warwick is killed, and Tewkesbury in May of the same year where the Lancastrian heir, Edward, Prince of Wales, is executed after the battle.

Henry is murdered in the Tower of London several days later, ending the direct Lancastrian line of succession.

A period of comparative peace follows.

Louis XI of France, who wishes to forestall a hostile alliance between Edward and Edward's brother-in-law Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, suggests the idea of an alliance between Warwick and Margaret.

Neither of those two formerly mortal enemies entertain the notion at first, but eventually they are brought round to realize the potential benefits.

However, both are undoubtedly hoping for different outcomes: Warwick for a puppet king in the form of Henry VI or his young son; Margaret to be able to reclaim her family's realm.

In any case, a marriage is arranged between Warwick's daughter Anne and Margaret's son Edward of Westminster, and in the autumn of 1470 Warwick invades England.

Edward IV had already marched north to suppress another uprising in Yorkshire.

Warwick, with help from a fleet under his nephew, the Bastard of Fauconberg, lands at Dartmouth and rapidly secures support from the southern counties and ports.

He occupies London in October, freeing the imprisoned Henry VI, and parades him through the streets of London as the restored king.

Warwick's brother John Neville, who had recently received the empty title Marquess of Montagu and who has led large armies in the Scottish marches, suddenly defects to Warwick.

Edward is unprepared for this event and has to order his army to scatter.

He and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, flee from Doncaster to the coast, and thence to Holland and exile in Burgundy.

They are proclaimed traitors, and many exiled Lancastrians, such as the Percys, return to reclaim their estates.

Warwick's position nevertheless remains precarious.

His alliance with Louis of France and his intention to declare war on Burgundy is contrary to the interests of the merchants, as it threatens English trade with Flanders and the Netherlands.

Clarence has long been excluded from Warwick's calculations.

Parliament in November 1470 declares that Prince Edward and his descendants are Henry's heirs to the throne; Clarence will become King only if the Lancastrian line of succession fails.

Unknown to Warwick, Clarence secretly becomes reconciled with his brother, King Edward.

Margaret and her son Edward, urged on by Louis XI, on March 24 finally sail for England.

Storms force her ships back to France several times, and she and Prince Edward finally land at Weymouth in Dorsetshire on the same day that the Battle of Barnet is fought.

While Margaret shelters at nearby Cerne Abbey, the Duke of Somerset brings news of the disaster at Barnet to her.

She briefly wishes to return to France, but Prince Edward persuades her to gamble for victory.

Somerset and the Earl of Devon have already raised an army for Lancaster in the West Country.

Their best hope is to march northwards and join forces with the Lancastrians in Wales, led by Jasper Tudor.

Other Lancastrian forces can be relied upon to distract King Edward; in particular, a fleet under Warwick's relation, the Bastard of Fauconberg, is preparing to descend on Kent, where the Nevilles and Warwick in particular have always been popular.