Mediterranean Southwest Europe (688–699 CE): Visigothic Reforms, Lombard Stability, and Byzantine Constraints

The era 688–699 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe witnesses significant legislative reforms within the Visigothic Kingdom, sustained stability under Lombard rule in Italy, and continuing Byzantine efforts to maintain their diminished territories amid external threats.

Visigothic Legislative Reforms and Political Stabilization

In Iberia, King Egica (r. 687–702 CE) initiates important legislative reforms aimed at strengthening royal authority and reducing internal discord within the Visigothic state. The Sixteenth Council of Toledo (693 CE) notably addresses fiscal policy, judicial practices, and social stability. Egica’s measures, though ambitious, offer only temporary stabilization, as factional tensions and political rivalries remain deeply entrenched.

Lombard Stability and Cultural Consolidation in Italy

Under Lombard King Cunipert (r. 688–700 CE), northern Italy experiences relative political stability and cultural flourishing. Cunipert supports ecclesiastical institutions, promoting closer ties with the papacy and enhancing Lombard legitimacy through Christian patronage. His rule helps solidify Lombard territorial holdings, consolidating political authority at Pavia and strengthening the cohesion of the Lombard kingdom.

Byzantine Constraints and Regional Defense

During this period, the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna, though territorially reduced and increasingly isolated, maintains resilient defenses against Lombard encroachments. Byzantine officials strive to protect their remaining coastal enclaves and urban strongholds, reinforcing strategic fortifications and diplomatic relations to counterbalance Lombard influence and external maritime threats from Islamic expansion.

Papal Diplomacy and Ecclesiastical Influence

The papacy continues to assert significant cultural and diplomatic influence, navigating complex relationships with Lombard rulers, Visigothic authorities, and Byzantine officials. Papal diplomacy remains crucial in maintaining doctrinal unity, supporting regional stability, and mediating political tensions across fragmented territories.

Legacy of the Era

The era 688–699 CE reflects a period of cautious optimism, characterized by temporary stability and legislative reforms in Visigothic Iberia, strengthened Lombard rule in Italy, and determined Byzantine resistance. Ecclesiastical institutions, particularly the papacy, remain pivotal in shaping the region’s historical and cultural trajectory amid ongoing political complexity.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (688–699 CE): Intensifying Fragmentation and the Waning of Visigothic Power

Between 688 and 699 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—covering Galicia, northern and central Portugal, Asturias, Cantabria, and northern Spain south of the Franco-Spanish border (43.05548° N, 1.22924° W)—experienced increasing political fragmentation as the Visigothic Kingdom faced internal divisions, aristocratic rivalries, and weakened royal authority. Despite this turbulence, regional structures of governance and strong ecclesiastical institutions remained resilient, preserving local stability and distinct identities.

Political and Military Developments

Erosion of Visigothic Central Authority
Under the reigns of Visigothic kings Egica (687–702 CE) and previously Erwig (680–687 CE), central authority in Toledo steadily weakened. The political climate was marked by conspiracies, noble rebellions, and succession disputes, severely undermining royal legitimacy and effective administration, especially in peripheral regions.

Growth of Local Aristocratic Power
With the weakening royal oversight, powerful local families in Galicia, northern Lusitania, Asturias, and Cantabria expanded their autonomy. Local leaders began openly asserting authority, strengthening their positions through strategic alliances and fortifications. These developments set a precedent for the later formation of independent regional kingdoms.

Economic Developments

Resilience of Local Economies
Despite declining central control, local economies remained strong, driven by agricultural productivity, livestock farming, mining (particularly gold and silver in Galicia and Asturias), and skilled artisanal production (textiles, pottery, metalwork).
Villa-based estates continued as central economic units, supported by stable rural populations.

Maintenance of Maritime Trade
Regional coastal trade persisted, with ports like Bracara Augusta (Braga) and Olissipo (Lisbon) maintaining modest but reliable maritime networks. These networks continued to link Atlantic Southwest Europe to the broader Mediterranean and Atlantic commercial spheres, providing essential economic stability during political uncertainty.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Strengthened Ecclesiastical Authority
Influential bishoprics, notably Braga, Emerita Augusta, and Asturica Augusta, solidified their authority as central institutions of community governance, education, and social welfare. Amid weakening secular authority, bishops became increasingly powerful civic leaders, filling administrative gaps left by the declining Visigothic state.

Expansion of Monastic Influence
Monastic communities continued their vital role, promoting manuscript production, education, and agricultural innovation. Monasteries emerged as significant landholders and economic hubs, further embedding Orthodox Christianity deeply into regional culture and governance.

Enduring Cultural Syncretism
In rural and mountainous regions of Galicia, Asturias, and northern Portugal, the blending of orthodox Christian practices with traditional Iberian and Celtic customs continued robustly. This cultural synthesis reinforced regional identities and provided continuity amidst broader political fragmentation.

Civic Identity and Governance

Persistent Decentralization
Local governance remained resiliently decentralized, managed independently by powerful aristocratic families, bishops, and tribal leaders. Regional authorities effectively governed their territories autonomously, further eroding centralized Visigothic influence.

Notable Tribal Groups and Settlements

• Galicians and Lusitanians: Skillfully navigated increasing political fragmentation, maintaining stability and strengthening local governance structures.

• Astures and Cantabri: Continued preserving traditional indigenous governance, remaining largely unaffected by weakening royal authority.

• Vascones: Maintained political neutrality, cultural distinctiveness, and territorial independence, insulated from broader Visigothic disruptions.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 688 and 699 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Experienced intensified political fragmentation as central Visigothic authority declined sharply, setting the stage for future independent political entities.

• Strengthened local aristocratic and ecclesiastical institutions, laying crucial foundations for subsequent regional kingdoms.

• Preserved resilient local economies, cultural distinctiveness, and decentralized governance, significantly shaping the early medieval character of the region.

This era marked an essential transitional phase, clearly foreshadowing the imminent collapse of centralized Visigothic power and the rise of autonomous Christian kingdoms that defined the region’s medieval future.

Egica was married around 670 to Cixilo (Cixilona, Cioxillo or Cixila), the daughter of his royal predecessor Erwig and wife Liuvigoto, who, on his deathbed on November 14, 687, had confirmed Egica as his heir and sent him with the royal court to Toledo to be crowned.

Here he had been anointed on November 24.

Upon Ergica's marriage to Cixilo, Erwig had made him swear an oath to protect Erwig's children.

Before his death, Erwig had required a second oath, swearing not to deny justice to the people.

Shortly after taking the throne, Ergica had called the Fifteenth Council of Toledo on May 11, 688, at which he had claimed the two oaths were contradictory (because to do justice to the people required "harming" Erwig's children) and had asked the council of bishops to release him from one or the other.

Egica, however, had met the opposition of Julian of Toledo.

When the council allowed Egica to abandon his wife but only partially rescinded the oath to protect Erwig's children, Ergica waited until Julian's death in 690 to call a second provincial council of Tarraconensis, which results in Erwig's widow, Liuvigoto, being sent to a convent.

The Church of San Pedro de la Nave: A Lasting Legacy of Visigothic Architecture

In 691 CE, during the reign of King Egica, construction begins on the Church of San Pedro de la Nave, one of the last major works of Visigothic architecture.

Located in Campillo, Zamora, on the banks of the Esla River, the church's original design follows a Roman cross plan, reflecting late Visigothic architectural traditions.

San Pedro de la Nave stands as a testament to the enduring artistic and religious heritage of the Visigothic kingdom, even as its political power wanes in the face of the coming Islamic conquest.

The metropolitan of Toledo, Sisebert, leads a rebellion against Egica in 692 in favor of raising a man named Suniefred to the throne.

The rebels control Toledo for a time, because they are able to mint coins in the potential usurper's name.

The plan to assassinate Ergica, the dowager queen Liuvigoto, and several main counselors fails, and Sisebert is defrocked and excommunicated.

Sisebert’s rebellion having been suppressed, Egica calls a general council of the church in Spain to deal with the future security of the kingship and the discipline of the renegades.

Sixty bishops, five abbots, and six counts attend the council.

The bishops of Narbonensis cannot attend on account of an epidemic.

The Sixteenth Council of Toledo, the second of Egica's three councils, first meets on April 25, 693.

The king opens the council with a speech declaring that any officials who betrayed the trust of the Gothic people would be driven from office and enslaved to the treasury, forfeiting their property to the royal coffers.

The king, the council concurs, could bestow this confiscated property on anyone he wished, the church obviously not excluded.

The descendants of rebels are likewise prohibited from holding any palatine office.

Finally, the rebels are anathematized on the basis of the seventy-fifth canon of the Fourth Council.

On May 2, the final day of the council, the bishops solemnly excommunicate Sisebert for life and defrock him.

He will be allowed communion on his deathbed only, unless the king pardons him earlier.

Furthermore, his descendants are barred from holding any offices and any other rebel or descendant of a rebel who might rise up against Ergica is to be sold into slavery.

Without precedent, the bishops transfer the archbishop of Seville, Felix, to Toledo and the archbishop of Braga, Faustinus, to Seville.

They also order the bishops of Narbonensis to approve the decrees of the Sixteenth Council in a local synod of their own.

The council also reforms the laws of the realm on several points.

Incorporated into the Forum Iudicum formulated by Chindasuinth, published by Recceswinth, and modified by Erwig is the law that any oath rendered unto anybody other than the monarch is invalid and illegal.

A few laws are revoked and some are reestablished, such as that prohibiting the mutilation of slaves.

The council reaffirms Chindasuinth's penalty of castration for homosexuality, but only defrocking and exile for clerical offenders, though Egica increases that penalty to castration as well, after the council.

The council is also important in the long legal history of the Visigoths in suppressing Judaism.

Egica has apparently added to Erwig's law code tax-freedom to Jewish conversos and transferred their former burden to the unconverted.

At the Sixteenth Council, converts are allowed to trade with Christians, but not until he has proved himself by recitation of creeds and eating of non-kosher food.

Penalties are even enacted against Christians who transact with unconverted or unproven Jews.

In regards to the church, aside from dealing with the rebel Sisebert and the vacancy of his see, two important decrees are promulgated.

Firstly, the bishops are ordered to maintain all church edifices in good repair and keep a priest in each parish.

Secondly, the bishops are ordered to take all offerings offered by "rustics" to pagan gods and exterminate these continuing practice (no doubt only occurring in the remotest provincial backwaters).

The Seventeenth Council of Toledo first meets on November 9, 694 under King Egica.

It is the king's third council and primarily directed, as was the Sixteenth, against the Jews, of whom Egica seems to have had a profound distrust and dislike.

The king opens the synod by claiming that he has heard news of Jews overthrowing their Christian rulers overseas and that Iberian Jews are conspiring with these cousins to end the Christian religion once and for all.

The council therefore decrees in its eight canon that all Jews, except those in Narbonensis, are to be deprived of their property, which is to be given to their Christian slaves, and enslaved themselves.

All Jewish children reaching the age of seven should be taken from their homes and raised as Christians.

Their slavekeepers are chosen by the king and are to be contractually obligated to never allow the practice of the Jewish religion again.

It is, however, almost certain that, in at least some parts of Spain, these regulations were not strictly enforced, particularly in towns where Jews were deemed indispensable to the economy; though in others, they certainly were.

Indeed, as a result of the disintegrating Visigothic power, the law is hardly enforced beyond the capital city itself.

The council tries to protect the life of Egica's queen and children after his death, knowing the harm which could befall the royal family during a succession, and the bishops order prayers said for their souls.

The council's minutes remain the best source of information for its period in Spanish history.

Atlantic Southwest Europe (700–711 CE): Collapse of Visigothic Power and Prelude to Islamic Invasion

Between 700 and 711 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe—covering Galicia, northern and central Portugal, Asturias, Cantabria, and northern Spain south of the Franco-Spanish border (43.05548° N, 1.22924° W)—entered a decisive transitional era. This period saw the dramatic collapse of centralized Visigothic authority amid internal conflict and weakening royal legitimacy, setting the stage for the transformative Islamic invasion of Iberia. Yet even in this turbulent environment, regional governance, ecclesiastical leadership, and cultural resilience provided continuity and stability.

Political and Military Developments

Final Years of Visigothic Fragmentation
Under Visigothic kings Egica (687–702 CE) and his son Wittiza (702–710 CE), internal divisions intensified. Succession disputes, aristocratic rebellions, and accusations of tyranny against Wittiza accelerated the erosion of royal legitimacy. Visigothic authority diminished rapidly, particularly in peripheral regions like Galicia, Asturias, and Cantabria, allowing local magnates to assert near-complete autonomy.

Rise of Local Powers
Regional aristocratic families, particularly in Galicia, Asturias, and northern Lusitania, further entrenched their independent authority, bolstering local defenses, forging regional alliances, and consolidating their territorial control. These emerging local powers formed the foundations for the future independent Christian kingdoms that would rise following the imminent collapse of the Visigothic state.

Economic Developments

Sustained Local Economies amid Turmoil
Regional economies, especially villa-based agriculture, livestock husbandry, mining activities (notably gold and silver in Galicia and Asturias), and artisanal crafts, maintained their resilience despite political upheaval. The continuing productivity of these local economies provided stability even as central authority disintegrated.

Maritime Trade Resilience
Coastal settlements such as Bracara Augusta (Braga) and Olissipo (Lisbon) maintained modest yet vital maritime commerce, ensuring ongoing economic links with broader Atlantic and Mediterranean markets. These trade networks provided economic stability and continuity amid the impending dramatic political shifts.

Cultural and Religious Developments

Ecclesiastical Leadership and Authority
Influential bishoprics—particularly those in Braga, Emerita Augusta, and Asturica Augusta—solidified their leadership roles amid declining secular governance. Bishops acted as key civic administrators, effectively managing local communities and maintaining social order, laying the groundwork for future medieval ecclesiastical influence.

Growth and Influence of Monasticism
Monastic communities continued their expansion, preserving literacy, education, manuscript production, agricultural innovation, and social welfare. Monasteries increasingly served as essential economic and cultural centers, further strengthening ecclesiastical influence throughout Atlantic Southwest Europe.

Enduring Cultural Syncretism
The distinctive blending of orthodox Christianity with indigenous Celtic and Iberian traditions persisted robustly, especially in rural Galicia, Asturias, and northern Portugal. These enduring local customs helped communities maintain a strong regional identity and resilience amidst broader political uncertainty.

Civic Identity and Governance

Continued Decentralization and Regional Autonomy
Local governance structures, led by powerful aristocratic families, bishops, and tribal leaders, operated independently from the weakened Visigothic court at Toledo. Civic identities remained local and stable, reinforcing a deeply decentralized political order.

Notable Tribal Groups and Settlements

• Galicians and Lusitanians: Further consolidated autonomous regional governance structures, laying firm foundations for emerging medieval polities.

• Astures and Cantabri: Preserved indigenous governance and autonomy, largely unaffected by collapsing royal power.

• Vascones: Maintained their longstanding neutrality, cultural identity, and territorial independence, insulated from broader Iberian conflicts.

Long-Term Significance and Legacy

Between 700 and 711 CE, Atlantic Southwest Europe:

• Witnessed the final collapse of centralized Visigothic authority, marking a decisive turning point in Iberian history.

• Preserved resilient local governance and strong ecclesiastical structures, providing crucial continuity and stability.

• Established critical foundations for emerging medieval Christian kingdoms and identities, shaping the region’s subsequent historical trajectory.

This era set the stage for the transformative events of 711 CE, notably the Islamic invasion, which would decisively reshape Iberian society, politics, and culture for centuries to come.