The so-called Dieppe Maps, copied by spies from secret Portuguese charts, and presented in 1536 to the French Dauphin, indicates that a Portuguese fleet has previously found and charted the northeast and east coasts of Australia.

One of the maps depicts a Southern Continent nearly identical in eastern profile to Australia.

Another of the Dieppe Maps depicts the knowledge of New Zealand’s east coasts gained earlier by Portuguese mariners.

Marriage of Henry, Duke of Orléans, and Catherine de' Medici (1533)

In 1533, Henry, Duke of Orléans, the second son of King Francis I and Claude, Duchess of Brittany, married Catherine de' Medici, daughter of Lorenzo II de' Medici, Duke of Urbino. The marriage, celebrated on October 28, 1533, at the royal Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye near Paris, was politically significant, aiming to strengthen alliances between the French crown and the powerful Medici family of Florence.

Context and Significance

Henry’s early life was marked by the traumatic experience of captivity. Following his father's capture by Emperor Charles V at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, Henry and his older brother had been sent to Spain as hostages to secure their father's release, enduring imprisonment for over four years. This experience profoundly influenced Henry's personality, making him reserved and cautious in later life.

The marriage to Catherine introduced significant Italian cultural influences into France, notably transforming the French court’s culinary traditions. Catherine, raised in a Florentine court renowned for its luxury and refinement, brought with her Italian chefs and delicacies, introducing the French aristocracy to dishes such as quenelles (fish dumplings), zabaglione (egg yolk and wine custard), and scaloppini, as well as Italian vegetables like artichokes and broccoli, thereby marking the beginning of a culinary revolution at the French court.

The Influence of Diane de Poitiers

Despite his marriage to Catherine, Henry would soon become romantically involved with Diane de Poitiers, a widow twenty years his senior. Diane had held a longstanding affectionate relationship with Henry, having publicly embraced him upon his departure for captivity in Spain. Her influence grew significantly after their relationship became romantic around 1534. For the next twenty-five years, Diane acted as Henry’s confidante and unofficial political advisor, wielding substantial power behind the scenes, to the detriment of Catherine’s own position and influence. Catherine, despite her powerful connections, found herself largely powerless to counter Diane’s sway, although Diane notably insisted on Henry fulfilling his marital duties with Catherine to secure the royal succession.

Long-term Consequences

Henry’s marriage to Catherine de' Medici had profound long-term consequences for France. Catherine would later become a pivotal figure during a turbulent period in French history, acting as regent and mother to three future kings of France—Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III. Her political maneuvering, influenced by the complexities of her marriage and Henry’s powerful relationship with Diane de Poitiers, shaped French politics and courtly life profoundly in the second half of the sixteenth century.

Francis I said of his son at birth, "a beautiful dauphin who is the most beautiful and strong child one could imagine and who will be the easiest to bring up".

His mother, Claude, Duchess of Brittany, said, "tell the King that he is even more beautiful than himself".

The Dauphin had been christened at Amboise on April 25, 1519.

Leonardo da Vinci, who had been brought to Amboise by Francis I, designed the decorations.

One of the most researched aspects of the Dauphin's short life is the time he and his brother Henry (later Henry II of France) spent as hostages in Spain.

The king had been badly defeated and captured at the Battle of Pavia in 1525 and became a prisoner of Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, initially in the Alcázar in Madrid.

In order to ensure his release, the king had signed the Treaty of Madrid in 1526.

However, in order to ensure that Francis abided by the treaty, Charles had demanded that the king's two older sons take his place as hostages.

Francis agreed.

The exchange had taken place in March 1526 at the border between Spain and France.

The eight-year-old Dauphin and his younger brother Henry had spent the next three years as captives of Charles V, a period that has scarred them for life.

The Dauphin's "somber, solitary tastes" and his preference for dressing in black (like a Spaniard) are attributed to the time he spent in captivity in Madrid.

He has also become bookish, preferring reading to soldiering.

As first son and heir to a king of France the Dauphin has been a marriage pawn for his father.

He cannot be wasted in marriage, as many feels his brother Henry had been with his marriage to Catherine de' Medici, and there have been several betrothals to eligible princesses throughout the Dauphin's life.

The first was when he was an infant, to the four-year-old Mary Tudor (later Mary I of England), daughter of Henry VIII of England and Catherine of Aragon; but this arrangement was abandoned around 1520.

In 1524, the Dauphin inherited the Duchy of Brittany on his mother's death, becoming Duke Francis III, although the Duchy was actually ruled by officials of the French crown.

In summer 1356, after playing a round of tennis at a jeu de paume court "pré[s] d'Ainay", the Dauphin asks for a cup of water, which is brought to him by his secretary, Count Montecuccoli.

After drinking it, Francis collapses and dies several days later at Château Tournon-sur-Rhône on August 10, 1536, at the age of eighteen.

The circumstances of his death seem suspicious, and it is believed by many that he had been poisoned.

However, there is ample evidence that he died of natural causes, possibly tuberculosis.

The Dauphin had never fully recovered his health from the years spent in damp, dank cells in Madrid.

In an age before forensic science, poison is usually suspected whenever a young, healthy person dies shortly after eating or drinking.

There is no way to pinpoint and trace the substance after death; therefore, it is considered a quick, easy and non-traceable form of homicide.

There have been several other suspected cases of political-murder-by-poison in the French royal family through the ages.

Montecuccoli, who is brought to the court by Catherine de' Medici, is accused of being in the pay of Charles V, and when his quarters are searched a book on toxicology is found.

Catherine de' Medici is well known to have an interest in poisons and the occult.

Under torture, Montecuccoli confesses to having tried to poison King Francis and the Dauphin on behalf of the Emperor.

Later he retracts his confession, but is executed by écartelage at the Place de la Grenette in Lyons on October 7, 1536.

This manner of execution is reserved for regicides and means that the victim is to be torn to pieces by four horses galloping into four different directions.

Charles V officially protests against the charges leveled at his government.

West Europe (1540–1683 CE)

Principalities, Ports, and the Making of the Early Modern West

Geography & Environmental Context

West Europe in this age cohered around two complementary maritime–Mediterranean spheres: Mediterranean West Europe—southern France, Corsica, and Monaco—and Atlantic West Europe—northern France and the Low Countries (the Dutch Republic, Spanish Netherlands, and Luxembourg) along the English Channel and Atlantic. Mountain arcs, river basins (Loire, Seine, Scheldt, Meuse, Rhine), and islanded coasts framed agrarian heartlands and sea-facing emporia. The Little Ice Age brought cooler, more volatile seasons; floods, frosts, and vintner uncertainty alternated with years of bounty, testing grain and wine economies alike.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Mediterranean West Europe: Terraced vines, olives, figs, wheat, and pastoral uplands underpinned rural life; Corsica remained under Genoese control amid frequent revolts; Monaco, under the Grimaldi, consolidated as a small sovereign principality oriented toward France.

• Atlantic West Europe: Grain belts and dairying in Flanders and Artois; vineyards in Loire and Burgundy; bustling ports—Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Antwerp, Bordeaux, Nantes, La Rochelle, Rouen—drove urban growth and craft specialization. Toulouse pivoted after the decline of pastel (woad) as indigo from India displaced older dye trades.

Technology & Material Culture

• Agriculture & hydraulics: Dike and polder engineering in the Low Countries; drainage and crop rotation improved productivity; Mediterranean terraces stabilized thin soils.

• Shipping & finance: Dutch fluyts, improved charts, and insurance markets supported long-distance trade; the Amsterdam Exchange (1602) epitomized financial innovation.

• Architecture & arts: Renaissance and Baroque idioms reshaped towns—from Versailles’ courtly grandeur to Flemish guildhalls; coral-and-limestone citadels on Corsica testified to Genoese rule; Monaco’s palace symbolized dynastic continuity.

• Print culture: Amsterdam, Leiden, Paris, and Antwerp were premier centers for books, newspapers, and scientific tracts.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Sea lanes: Channel and Atlantic routes carried wine, grain, salt, textiles, sugar, tobacco, and enslaved labor; the Dutch and French merchant marines connected Baltic grain to Iberian salt and Caribbean staples.

• River networks: The Seine–Loire–Rhine–Scheldt–Meuse arteries integrated inland markets with seaports.

• Diplomatic circuits: Franco–Spanish and Habsburg–Dutch rivalries mapped corridors of war and alliance; Monaco’s 1642 French investiture bound the Rock to Bourbon protection while preserving sovereignty.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Humanism → Baroque: French Renaissance letters (Rabelais, La Pléiade) yielded to Baroque classicism under Louis XIII/XIV; in the Low Countries, the Dutch Golden Age and Flemish Baroque flourished—Rembrandt, Vermeer, Rubens.

• Theater & letters: Molière and Racine codified French drama; the Republic of Letters linked Amsterdam and Paris to London and Rome.

• Urban identity: Merchant patriciates funded almshouses, canals, and guild chapels; Huguenot salons and Dutch collegia nurtured sciences (Descartes in the Netherlands; Leeuwenhoek’s microscopy).

Political & Military Shocks

Mediterranean West Europe

• Monaco: Honoré II styled himself Prince (1612); by 1642 he became Duc et Pair Étranger under French protection—an emblem of princely consolidation amid Franco–Spanish rivalry.

• Corsica: Genoese rule persisted through fortified ports (Calvi, Bonifacio), despite endemic clan revolts and piracy.

• Southern France: The Wars of Religion (1562–1598) ravaged Languedoc and Provence; the Edict of Nantes (1598) stabilized coexistence until later retrenchments.

Atlantic West Europe

• Habsburg–Valois conflicts culminated in Cateau-Cambrésis (1559); France turned inward to confront confessional war.

• Dutch Revolt (1568–1648): The Eighty Years’ War birthed the Dutch Republic; Westphalia (1648) confirmed independence and reoriented the North Sea economy.

• Absolutism & expansion: Louis XIV’s wars (esp. Franco–Dutch War, 1672–78) and administrative centralization projected France as Europe’s leading power by 1683.

Religious Transformations

• Reformation & Counter-Reformation: Calvinism spread in the Low Countries and northern France; Jesuit missions, seminaries, and baroque piety spearheaded Catholic renewal.

• Toleration settlements: The Edict of Nantes and the Dutch Republic’s pragmatic toleration offered early models of pluralism amid enduring confessional fault lines.

Economic Transitions

• Pastel to indigo: Toulouse’s woad economy declined as Indigofera imports rose; merchants diversified into grain finance, legal professions, and textiles.

• Dutch commercial hegemony: VOC and WIC networks, Baltic grain trade, and the Amsterdam Exchangeunderwrote a global web.

• French Atlantic rise: Bordeaux and Nantes expanded on wine and emerging plantation commerce, laying foundations for 18th-century growth.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Low Countries: Continuous dike raising, polder drainage, and windmill pumping defended land and stabilized yields.

• Mediterranean slopes: Terracing, cisterns, and mixed arboriculture buffered droughts; coastal fisheries supplemented diets.

• Urban welfare: Confraternities, hospices, and poor relief mitigated famine and plague shocks.

Transition

Between 1540 and 1683, West Europe consolidated princely sovereignties and maritime republics, rebuilt after confessional wars, and vaulted into a global commercial system.

• In the Mediterranean, Monaco’s French alignment, Corsica’s Genoese fortresses, and southern France’s cultural refinement set the tone for principality survival amid great-power rivalry.

• Along the Atlantic, the Dutch Republic emerged as Europe’s commercial-financial engine, while France moved toward hegemonic monarchy and colonial reach.

By the eve of 1683, West Europe’s ports, polities, and patronage had forged durable institutions and identities—foundations that would dominate the continent’s politics, culture, and oceans in the century ahead.

Atlantic West Europe (1540–1683): Religious Turmoil, Dynastic Rivalries, and Maritime Ascendancy

The era spanning 1540 to 1683 in Atlantic West Europe—encompassing northern France, the Low Countries (modern Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg), and regions along the Atlantic and English Channel coasts—witnessed profound religious transformations, intense political and dynastic conflicts, vibrant cultural achievements, and economic growth driven by maritime expansion and colonial enterprise. This period marked the region's decisive transition from medieval fragmentation to early modern states, characterized by powerful central authorities, dynamic commercial networks, and distinct national identities.

Political and Military Developments

The Habsburg-Valois Conflicts (1540–1559)

• Early decades were dominated by wars between Francis I of France (1515–1547) and Emperor Charles V (1519–1556), particularly the Italian Wars. These conflicts drained regional economies but solidified centralized monarchical power in France.

• The Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559) ended these conflicts, stabilizing the Franco-Habsburg borders and allowing France to refocus internally.

Religious Wars and Political Fragmentation (1562–1598)

• France endured the brutal Wars of Religion, pitting Catholic factions against Protestant Huguenots, severely disrupting society, economy, and political stability.

• The wars culminated in the ascension of Henry IV (r.1589–1610), who issued the Edict of Nantes (1598), granting limited religious toleration, stabilizing France, and reasserting royal authority.

Dutch Revolt and Birth of the Dutch Republic (1568–1648)

• The Low Countries rebelled against Habsburg Spain, triggered by religious persecution, heavy taxation, and centralization attempts under Philip II. The resulting Eighty Years' War forged the Dutch Republic in the north, while the southern provinces (Spanish Netherlands) remained under Spanish rule.

• The Peace of Westphalia (1648) confirmed the independence of the Dutch Republic, profoundly reshaping the region’s political map and enabling Dutch commercial and cultural ascendancy.

Absolutism under Louis XIV (1643–1683)

• France reached the zenith of royal absolutism under Louis XIV (r.1643–1715), significantly expanding French territories through wars such as the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), solidifying France’s role as Europe's dominant continental power.

• Centralized bureaucracy, military reforms, and lavish cultural patronage characterized Louis XIV's reign, epitomized by the expansion of Versailles as a symbol of monarchical prestige.

Economic Developments: Maritime Trade and Colonial Expansion

Growth of Atlantic Commerce

• French Atlantic ports like Bordeaux, Nantes, La Rochelle, and Dutch hubs such as Amsterdam and Rotterdam, flourished through maritime trade, driven by sugar, tobacco, wine, textiles, and the burgeoning slave trade.

• Bordeaux’s wine industry significantly expanded during this era, becoming a critical economic sector, exporting primarily to England and Northern Europe, reinforcing regional prosperity.

Dutch Commercial Dominance

• The Dutch Republic emerged as a commercial powerhouse, with Amsterdam becoming Europe’s leading financial and trading center. The establishment of the Amsterdam Stock Exchange (1602) and the Dutch East India Company (VOC, 1602) epitomized the sophistication of Dutch capitalism and global trade.

• Dutch maritime innovations in shipbuilding, navigation, and banking underpinned their economic success and influence across European markets and overseas colonies.

Agricultural and Industrial Advances

• Advances in agricultural techniques, notably crop rotation and drainage systems, improved productivity in northern France and the Low Countries, supporting population growth and urbanization.

• Textile production remained crucial, especially in Flanders and northern France, despite disruptions from warfare, forming a foundation for early industrialization.

Religious Developments: Reform, Conflict, and Toleration

Protestant Reformation and Catholic Response

• The spread of Protestantism profoundly reshaped religious and political life. Calvinism gained traction, especially in northern France and the Low Countries, fueling religious dissent against Catholic authorities.

• Catholic Counter-Reformation movements, notably led by the Jesuits, responded vigorously, reforming internal church structures, promoting religious education, and combating Protestant influence.

Religious Wars and Persecution

• Intense religious violence erupted across France, exemplified by the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572), resulting in thousands of Huguenot deaths and heightened religious animosities.

• Protestant persecution under Spanish rule intensified in the Low Countries, ultimately leading to the Dutch Revolt and the establishment of religious toleration in the northern provinces, notably Holland.

Establishment of Limited Religious Toleration

• The Edict of Nantes (1598) and the relative religious toleration of the Dutch Republic became early models of coexistence amid religious pluralism, setting critical precedents influencing later European developments.

Cultural and Intellectual Developments

Renaissance Humanism to Baroque Splendor

• The French Renaissance, spurred by humanist scholars like François Rabelais and poets of La Pléiade, transitioned into the extravagant cultural and artistic patronage of the Baroque period under Louis XIII and Louis XIV.

• Flemish painters such as Peter Paul Rubens and Dutch Golden Age artists including Rembrandt and Vermeer profoundly impacted European artistic traditions through innovative techniques and compelling naturalism.

Intellectual Innovations and Scientific Advances

• This era witnessed groundbreaking advances in science, technology, and medicine. Intellectual centers such as Paris and Amsterdam became hubs for scientists and philosophers, exemplified by René Descartes’ philosophical works and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek’s microscopy.

• The establishment of learned societies, such as the French Académie des Sciences (1666), reflected state-sponsored encouragement of scientific inquiry, significantly advancing European knowledge.

Literary and Cultural Flourishing

• French literary culture flourished under royal patronage, with notable playwrights like Molière and Jean Racine, whose works profoundly influenced European drama.

• In the Dutch Republic, high literacy rates and publishing freedoms fostered a vibrant literary culture, marked by prolific book publishing, newspapers, and critical philosophical discourse.

Social and Urban Transformations

Urban Expansion and Socioeconomic Mobility

• Maritime trade significantly propelled urbanization in port cities such as Amsterdam, Antwerp, Bordeaux, and Nantes, leading to the emergence of affluent merchant classes influential in local governance and cultural patronage.

• Economic prosperity stimulated the growth of urban infrastructure, including banking institutions, merchant guilds, public buildings, and market spaces, reshaping urban life and society.

Social Tensions and Rural Struggles

• Despite urban wealth, significant rural poverty persisted, exacerbated by warfare, heavy taxation, agricultural disruption, and periodic famines, particularly notable in northern France and parts of the Low Countries.

• Rural communities faced pressures from enclosures, increasing commercialization of agriculture, and demographic growth, fueling migrations toward cities and overseas colonies.

Legacy and Historical Significance

By 1683, Atlantic West Europe had undergone transformative shifts in political structure, economic power, cultural expression, and religious dynamics:

• Politically, the period solidified powerful centralized monarchies in France and independent republican governance in the Netherlands.

• Economically, the region became integral to global commerce, driven by maritime exploration, colonial expansion, and financial innovation, notably in the Dutch Republic.

• Culturally and intellectually, Renaissance humanism transitioned into Baroque grandeur and scientific rationalism, profoundly shaping European thought, art, and literature.

• Religiously, the profound tensions between Protestantism and Catholicism laid the groundwork for modern notions of religious pluralism and toleration.

Thus, this period positioned Atlantic West Europe decisively at the forefront of early modern European transformations, establishing foundational structures, cultural identities, and economic patterns that endured into subsequent centuries.

Atlantic West Europe (1540–1551): Religious Tensions, Economic Shifts, and Dynastic Ambitions

From 1540 to 1551, Atlantic West Europe—including northern France, the Low Countries (modern Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg), and coastal territories facing the Atlantic and English Channel—underwent significant shifts marked by intensifying religious conflict, economic expansion driven by global trade, cultural flourishing, and dynastic struggles. This era, immediately following the height of Renaissance humanism, saw the onset of deeper religious divisions and growing centralization of political power, laying the groundwork for future upheavals.

Political and Military Developments

Francis I and Charles V: Dynastic Rivalries

• France under King Francis I (r. 1515–1547) continued intense rivalry with the Habsburg Emperor Charles V, whose vast dominions included the Low Countries. The Italian Wars (1494–1559) repeatedly embroiled these territories, with intermittent battles and shifting alliances destabilizing the region politically.

• The fragile Truce of Nice (1538) ended in 1542 as hostilities reignited between Francis and Charles, extending conflict from Italy into northern France and the Low Countries.

• The resulting war (1542–1546) strained local economies, increased military taxation, and intensified regional alliances, leading to a temporary stalemate settled by the Treaty of Crépy (1544), which confirmed status quo borders but maintained underlying tensions.

Henry II’s Succession and Continued Conflict

• Following Francis I’s death in 1547, his son, Henry II (r. 1547–1559), pursued aggressive anti-Habsburg policies, further heightening tensions in the Low Countries and along France’s northern borders.

• Henry II strengthened French defenses, notably fortifying strategic cities and coastal ports like Boulogne and Calais, reinforcing Atlantic West Europe's militarization in anticipation of continued conflicts.

Economic and Maritime Expansion

Rise of Antwerp as Commercial Hub

• Antwerp rose as Europe's premier commercial and financial center in this period, benefiting from its strategic location and openness to foreign merchants, including Portuguese spice traders and German banking families such as the Fuggers.

• In 1549, Antwerp hosted the entry of Prince Philip (later Philip II of Spain), symbolically cementing the city's pivotal role within the Habsburg domains. Its bourse (stock exchange) further facilitated growth in banking, trade finance, and commodity markets.

Bordeaux and Maritime Trade Networks

• Bordeaux’s wine industry thrived during this era, expanding exports of prized clarets to England, the Netherlands, and the Hanseatic cities. Robust maritime trade boosted the city’s economic vitality, reinforcing Atlantic commerce as a pillar of regional prosperity.

• Coastal ports across Normandy, Brittany, and the Low Countries also intensified maritime commerce, driven by expanding European demand for salted fish, textiles, grain, and luxury goods, further integrating Atlantic West Europe into global trade networks.

Religious and Intellectual Developments

Rise of Protestantism and Early Repression

• Protestant ideas, particularly Calvinism, spread rapidly through the Low Countries and northern France, driven by growing dissatisfaction with Catholic ecclesiastical authority. Antwerp and Ghent became early Protestant hubs, fostering clandestine communities of reformers.

• Emperor Charles V intensified anti-Protestant measures during the 1540s, instituting the Edicts of 1540–1550, which sought severe penalties for heresy, including confiscation of property and execution. These edicts heightened regional tensions and foreshadowed deeper religious conflict.

Humanist Scholarship and Cultural Vibrancy

• Despite religious strife, humanist scholarship thrived. The University of Leuven (Louvain) continued as a leading intellectual center, attracting humanist scholars who navigated carefully between reformist thought and Catholic orthodoxy.

• In France, humanist culture flourished at royal courts in Paris and Fontainebleau, attracting scholars and artists who balanced classical Renaissance ideals with contemporary religious and political realities.

Cultural and Artistic Flourishing

Late Renaissance and Early Mannerism

• Artistic and cultural vitality remained pronounced. The School of Fontainebleau, patronized by Francis I and subsequently Henry II, continued to introduce Italian-influenced Mannerist aesthetics into northern European art and architecture.

• In the Low Countries, artists such as Pieter Bruegel the Elder (active from the early 1550s) prepared to redefine northern painting, though his major works appeared slightly later. Nevertheless, Flemish painting maintained prominence through artists like Frans Floris, who blended Renaissance naturalism with local traditions.

Literature and Language

• French literary life was invigorated by figures such as the poet Clément Marot (d. 1544), whose innovative poetry and translations of the Psalms into French shaped the language and influenced Protestant communities.

• Printing presses in Antwerp, Paris, and Lyon published influential religious, scholarly, and literary texts, significantly impacting intellectual life across Atlantic West Europe.

Social Developments and Urban Growth

Urbanization and Merchant Influence

• Rapid urbanization continued, driven by trade and commerce, especially in cities such as Antwerp, Bordeaux, Bruges, Ghent, and Rouen. Urban merchant elites increasingly shaped local governance, economic policies, and cultural patronage.

• However, heightened taxation due to prolonged warfare and imperial conflicts led to periodic urban unrest, particularly in cities burdened by Habsburg military requisitions.

Rural Economy and Social Tensions

• The rural economy saw gradual changes, as larger landholdings increased productivity through improved farming methods, although rural poverty and social disparities persisted. Tensions occasionally erupted into small-scale rural uprisings and resistance to taxation.

Legacy and Significance

The years 1540–1551 marked the outset of critical transformations across Atlantic West Europe. Intense dynastic struggles between France and Habsburg domains, early stages of Protestant-Catholic conflict, and rapid economic expansion profoundly reshaped the region’s political, economic, and social landscape. This era set the stage for heightened religious conflicts, culminating in the brutal Wars of Religion later in the century, while consolidating economic foundations crucial for the subsequent rise of maritime powers and commercial capitalism.

The Edict of Fontainebleau states that the Protestant heresy is "high treason against God and mankind" and so deserves the appropriate punishments of torture, loss of property, public humiliation, and death.

Issued June 1, 1540, by Francis I of France while at his Palace of Fontainebleau, this occurs after the insulting "Affair of the Placards" had turned royal policy from one of tolerance to the persecution of the Protestants.

Thus, the Edict of Fontainebleau codifies the persecution of the French Protestants or Huguenots and is the first of many edicts in France to persecute the Huguenots.

The next major edict will be the Edict of Châteaubriant issued by Francis’s son and successor, Henry II.

Anne de Montmorency, duc de Montmorency, had in 1538 been named Constable of France.

He afterwards had begun to support peace with the Holy Roman Emperor, against the prevailing attitude of the court, renewing negotiations with the Holy Roman Empire and encouraging the Pope, Paul II, to create a settlement.

He had managed to get the two kings to meet at Aigues-Mortes in July 1538.

Francis, according to the deal Montmorency had brokered, expected that Charles V would give Milan to one of Francis' sons as a sign of alliance, but Charles had given the title to his son Philip.

As a result of this diplomatic failure, Montmorency has fallen out of royal favor, and Francis I has turned to the duke’s rivals Cardinal Tournon, Claude d'Annebault and his mistress Anne de Pisseleu d'Heilly, the Duchess of Étampes.

Montmorency retires from court in June 1541.

Having lost his post as a governor of Languedoc, he is forbidden to exercise his other offices.

He continues to maintain correspondence with the prince Henry.

The French immediately launch a two-front offensive against Charles.

In the north, the Duke of Orléans attacks Luxembourg, briefly capturing the city; ...

...in the south, a larger army under Claude d'Annebault and Francis's eldest son, the Dauphin Henry, unsuccessfully besiege the city of Perpignan in northern Spain.

Francis himself is meanwhile in La Rochelle, dealing with a revolt caused by popular discontent with a proposed reform of the gabelle tax.