Alexander Jannaeus, on his deathbed, calls in 76 BCE for a reconciliation between the Sadducees, who he has always supported, and the rival Pharisees.

His son Hyrcanus II is appointed high priest; Alexander's widow, Salome Alexandra, reverses anti-Pharisaic policy and is guided by powerful religious advisers, members of the Pharisaic movement.

Near East (69–58 BCE): Jewish Expansion and Roman Ascendancy

Between 69 and 58 BCE, Jewish influence notably expands, both within Palestine and throughout the Diaspora. Scholarly estimates suggest the Jewish population reaches substantial proportions during this era, ranging from around seven hundred thousand to possibly five million in Palestine, with an additional two to five million in the Diaspora. These numbers reflect not only natural population growth but also a significant increase in proselytes to Judaism, drawn by the ethical rigor and spiritual distinctiveness of Jewish practices.

Under Hasmonean rule, particularly since the conquests of John Hyrcanus (134–104 BCE), the region of Edom (Idumea) had been subdued, with its inhabitants compelled to adopt Judaism. The integration of Edomites into Judean society proves successful, and by the reign of Alexander Jannaeus, Edomite figures rise to prominent political positions. Antipater, son of Antipas, governor of Edom, emerges as a pivotal political figure and advisor to Hyrcanus II, forging influential ties with the expanding Roman Republic.

Rome's direct involvement in the region becomes decisive in 63 BCE, when Roman forces under Pompey the Greatintervene in Judean internal conflicts. This Roman intervention marks the effective end of Jewish independence, as Judea becomes subject to Roman oversight, a status from which it does not recover throughout Roman imperial rule.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 69 to 58 BCE signifies a turning point, marked by the considerable growth of the Jewish population and the critical introduction of Roman political dominance. The alliances and accommodations forged during this time decisively shape Judea's subsequent history, laying the foundation for its transformation into a significant, albeit contested, province within the expansive Roman world.

Judea under the Hasmonean Dynasty has become comparable in extent and power to the ancient Davidic dominion described in the Bible.

Internal political and religious discord runs high, however, especially between the Pharisees, who interpret the written law by adding a wealth of oral law, and the Sadducees, who call for strict adherence to the written law.

Salome Alexandra dies in 67 and her son assumes the rulership of Judaea as Hyrcanus II, but after a troubled reign of three months, his warlike brother Aristobulus drives him from power.

Hyrcanus seeks counsel from Antipater, satrap of the neighboring province of Idumaea (the former Kingdom of Edom, whose inhabits had been conquered and forcibly converted, among others, to Judaism by Hyrcanus' grandfather John Hyrcanus I).

Antipater, seeing in the weak-willed Hyrcanus a possible tool for his own desire to control Judaea, induces him to wage war on Aristobulus.

The two Hasmonean brothers, whose worldliness has alienated most of their subjects, have waged a brutal struggle in the kingdom of Judah, in 64 BCE finally appeal to Pompey to be their arbiter.

Pompey, who is reorganizing the lands of the newly conquered Seleucid kingdom, now has an excuse to intervene in Judea.

Pompey attempts unsuccessfully to arbitrate between the brothers.

Pompey, seeing in Hyrcanus a means of controlling the temple-state, directs his Roman legions in laying siege to and capturing Jerusalem.

He imposes taxes on the Jews and curtails Jewish dominions, granting virtual autonomy to a group of ten or eleven Hellenized cities in Syria and Palestine, henceforth to be known as the Decapolis.

The Romans intend the league to be a means of mutual protection and security against the Greek cities’ Semitic neighbors.

He places the league under the jurisdiction of the newly appointed governor of Syria.

Pompey restores Hyrcanus to the high priesthood and some semblance of civil authority, but without the title of king adopted by his predecessors.

Thus, eighty years of independent Jewish sovereignty end, and a period of Roman dominion begins.

The Roman military has not been very successful in their campaigns against the Nabataeans.

In 62 BCE, Marcus Aemilius Scaurus accepts a bribe of three hundred talents to lift the siege of Petra, partly because of the difficult terrain and the fact Scaurus has run out of food provisions.

Hyrcanus, who is a friend of Aretas, is dispatched by Scaurus to the King to buy peace.

In so obtaining peace, King Aretas retains his whole possessions, including Damascus, and becomes a Roman vassal.

The country remains independent but pays imperial taxes.

(Roman policy seems to have been to maintain Nabataea as a buffer state against the desert tribes.

).

Mark Antony, a member of the Antonia clan (gens), is the homonymous and thus presumably the eldest son of Marcus Antonius Creticus (praetor 74 BCE, proconsul 73–71 BCE) and grandson of the noted orator Marcus Antonius (consul 99 BCE, censor 97–6 BCE) who had been murdered during the Marian Terror of the winter of 87–6 BCE.

Antony's father was incompetent and corrupt, and according to Cicero, he was only given power because he was incapable of using or abusing it effectively.

He had in 74 BCE been given imperium infinitum to defeat the pirates of the Mediterranean, but he died in Crete in 71 BCE without making any significant progress.

Creticus had two other sons: Gaius (praetor 44 BCE, born around 83 BCE) and Lucius (quaestor 50 BCE, consul 41 BCE, born around 81 BCE).

Antony's is cousin to Julius Caesar through his mother, Julia, a daughter of Lucius Caesar (consul 90 BCE, censor 89 BCE).

She had married Publius Cornelius Lentulus (consul 71 BCE), an eminent patrician, upon the death of her first husband.

Lentulus, despite exploiting his political success for financial gain, was constantly in debt due to the extravagance of his lifestyle.

He was a major figure in the second Catilinian conspiracy and was extrajudicially killed on the orders of Cicero in 63 BCE.

Antony had lived a dissipate lifestyle as a youth, and gained a reputation for heavy gambling.

According to Cicero, he had a homosexual relationship with Gaius Scribonius Curio.

There is little reliable information on his political activity as a young man, although it is known that he was an associate of Clodius.

He may also have been involved in the Lupercal cult, as he will be referred to as a priest of this order later in life.

Antony in 58 BCE had traveled to Athens to study rhetoric and philosophy, escaping his creditors.

The next year, he is summoned by Pompey's lieutenant Aulus Gabinius, proconsul of Syria, to take part in the campaigns against Aristobulus II in Judea, as the commander of a Gallic cavalry regiment.

On Gabinius’ arrival, he reinstates Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood at Jerusalem, suppresses revolts, introduces important changes in the government of Judaea, and rebuilds several towns.

Antony achieves important victories at Alexandrium and Machaerus.

Aristobulus, following an unsuccessful attempt to regain power in 56, is sent to Rome as a prisoner, there to remain until his death in 49.

Hyrcanus II meanwhile continues to be manipulated by those who wish to use him.

Gabinius deprives him of his office.

Syria has been devastated by robbers during Gabinius' absence in Egypt, and Alexander, son of Aristobulus, has again taken up arms with the object of depriving Hyrcanus II of the high-priesthood.

Gabinius with some difficulty restores order and in 54 BCE hands over the province to his successor, Marcus Licinius Crassus.