The destruction of the Hebrew north has a sobering effect on the south.

The prophet Isaiah eloquently proclaims that rather than power and wealth, social justice and adherence to the will of God should be the focus of the Israelites.

Near East (753–742 BCE): Kushite Expansion and Prophetic Voices

Kushite Ascendancy in Upper Egypt

From his power base at Napata, approximately four hundred kilometers north of modern-day Khartoum in Sudan, Kashta, King of Kush, significantly expands his influence into Upper Egypt. Around this time, he successfully installs his daughter, Amenirdis I, as the presumptive successor to Shepenupet I, the serving Divine Adoratrice of Amun in Thebes and daughter of Egypt's Osorkon III. This strategic move legitimizes Kushite control over the Thebaid region and marks the initial phase of what some historians recognize as the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty of Egypt. Under Kashta's reign, the native Kushite population situated between the third and fourth Cataracts of the Nile undergoes rapid "Egyptianization," adopting Egyptian cultural practices, religion, and administrative structures. Kashta’s reign concludes around 752 BCE (or 747 BCE), when he is succeeded by his son, Piye.

Literature and Cultural Reflection: The Book of Ruth

During this period, the narrative known as the Book of Ruth emerges, traditionally attributed to the prophet Samuel but likely authored or redacted later. It details the life of Ruth, a Moabite widow who marries Boaz, an older kinsman from Bethlehem, through the assistance of her mother-in-law Naomi. This poignant story emphasizes themes of family loyalty, legal customs such as levirate marriage, and the subtle workings of divine providence in everyday life. Its enduring significance lies in Ruth’s role as an ancestor of King David, thereby anchoring the narrative in the larger historical and theological fabric of the Hebrew scriptures.

The Prophetic Voice of Amos

Around this same era, the prophet Amos, originating from Tekoa in Judah, rises to prominence. Writing in a time of relative prosperity, Amos directs his sharp critique toward the northern kingdom of Israel. He vehemently condemns the stark disparity between the lavish lifestyles of Israel’s elite and their oppression of the poor. His prophetic oracles, characterized by warnings of impending darkness, famine, and destruction, urge urgent social justice reforms and forecast severe divine judgment if his warnings are ignored.

Isaiah's Emergence and Influence

Beginning approximately in 747 BCE, the prophet Isaiah, possibly of noble lineage, begins his influential ministry in Jerusalem. His early messages (later compiled as chapters 1–35 in the Book of Isaiah, known collectively as First Isaiah) address critical internal political and economic policies. Isaiah's tenure will span multiple decades, profoundly shaping Judah's theological and political landscape. Modern scholarship generally agrees that the entirety of the Book of Isaiah comprises contributions from multiple authors and disciples over a prolonged period, though the initial chapters remain closely tied to Isaiah himself or his immediate circle.

Legacy of the Era

The era from 753 to 742 BCE marks a significant cultural, political, and religious transition in the Near East. Kushite influence in Egypt reshapes the political landscape of the region, while the prophetic voices of Amos and Isaiah redefine the spiritual and moral parameters within the Hebrew kingdoms. Meanwhile, the Book of Ruth provides enduring literary and cultural narratives that continue to influence ethical and religious thought. Collectively, these developments illustrate the vibrant intersections between political authority, religious expression, and social justice during a formative period in Near Eastern history.

Near East (717–706 BCE): Religious and Political Transformations

Syncretism and the Rise of Samaritan Identity

After the fall of Samaria, its new inhabitants—colonists from diverse parts of the Assyrian Empire—initially worship their own deities. According to later Jewish tradition, when dangerous wild animals infest the region, these colonists appeal to the Assyrian king for priests from Israel to instruct them on how to worship the local god, Yahweh. This leads to the emergence of a syncretistic form of religion, blending the worship of Yahweh with their original gods. Today's Samaritans, who regard themselves as descendants of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, continue to honor the Pentateuch as their sacred scripture and worship at Mount Gerizim. Modern genetic studies confirm Samaritan claims of Israelite lineage through male ancestors, with maternal lines indicating Assyrian and other foreign origins.

Nubian Religious Revival: The Shabaka Stone

During the reign of Pharaoh Shabaka of Egypt’s Nubian Twenty-fifth Dynasty, a significant religious artifact known as the Shabaka Stone is produced. Discovered by Shabaka himself at the temple of Ptah in Memphis, this slab records the deteriorating text of an ancient papyrus. The Shabaka Stone preserves the Memphite Theology, a sophisticated religious doctrine elevating Ptah, god of craftsmen, as the creator of all existence. According to this theology, Ptah conceives all things mentally and brings them into existence by speech—a concept reflecting a high level of abstraction and philosophical sophistication in Egyptian religious thought.

Moab Under Assyrian Influence

Moab, despite linguistic and cultural affinities with its Israelite neighbors, faces religious and political marginalization from Judahite society. This isolation is underscored by scriptural prohibitions (Deuteronomy 23:3-6) and prophetic denunciations (Isaiah 25:10). By the late eighth century BCE, Moab becomes a tributary of Assyria, signaling its integration into the expanding Assyrian sphere of influence.

Religious and Political Reforms in Judah

The fall of the northern kingdom deeply influences the southern kingdom of Judah, prompting religious introspection and political caution. Under King Hezekiah, who succeeds Ahaz in 715 BCE, Judah initiates significant religious reforms aimed at eradicating Canaanite religious practices and reaffirming the worship of Yahweh. These reforms contrast sharply with Ahaz's earlier policies, which had subjected Judah to Assyrian dominance. The prophet Isaiah resumes his activity during this period, addressing Hezekiah’s political efforts to extricate Judah from Assyrian suzerainty, notably during a failed rebellion involving Tyre and Sidon against Sargon II in 710 BCE.

Cyprus and the Assyrian Hegemony

In 709 BCE, Cyprus submits to Assyrian King Sargon II, who consolidates his regional authority by erecting a stela at Citium. Seven Cypriot city-kings—Curium, Paphos, Marion, Soli, Lapithos, Salamis, and Amathus—formally acknowledge his dominance. Subsequent Assyrian records add four more kingdoms—Citium, Kyrenia, Tamassos, and Idalium—to the list of tributary states. Although nominal, this acknowledgment underscores the broad reach of Assyrian imperial power, which extends over Cyprus until approximately 663 BCE.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 717 to 706 BCE is marked by profound transformations in religion and politics across the Near East. The emergence of Samaritan identity, theological innovation in Nubian-controlled Egypt, and Judah’s religious reforms under Hezekiah significantly shape the cultural and political landscape. Meanwhile, Assyria’s expanding influence, exemplified by its dominance over Moab and Cyprus, sets the stage for further imperial entanglements and cultural exchanges in the region.

Near East (705–694 BCE): Rebellion, Revival, and Imperial Consolidation

Assyrian Domination and Regional Revolts

The death of Assyrian king Sargon II in 705 BCE triggers widespread rebellion across the Near East against Assyrian dominance. Hezekiah, king of Judah, emerges prominently in these revolts, aiming to free Judah from Assyrian suzerainty. Allied with city-states such as Ashkelon and Ekron and backed by Egypt, Hezekiah fortifies Jerusalem, notably constructing the Siloam tunnel to ensure water supply during sieges. However, the Assyrian King Sennacherib invades Judah in 701 BCE, seizing numerous fortified cities, including Lachish and Jaffa. Jerusalem narrowly avoids capture, reportedly due to a devastating plague among Assyrian forces, an event later ascribed in Hebrew scriptures to divine intervention.

Cultural Resurgence and New Settlements

Around 700 BCE, the Troas region, previously abandoned, experiences renewed Greek colonization by settlers from Mytilene on Lesbos, who establish Ilion (Troy VIII). Concurrently, Milesian Greeks, with approval from Gyges of Lydia, establish Abydos at a strategic location on the Asian side of the Hellespont, opposite Sestus, enhancing both trade and geopolitical positioning.

Cypriot Urban Development

Cyprus undergoes significant urban and economic growth, epitomized by Idalium (modern Dali, Nicosia District), a prominent city renowned for its copper trade since the third millennium BCE. Listed prominently in Assyrian records from Sargon II and Esarhaddon, Idalium and other Cypriot cities become integral to Assyrian trade networks, reflecting Cyprus's deep integration into broader regional dynamics.

Prophetic Voices Amid Turmoil

During Hezekiah's second rebellion (705–701 BCE), the Judahite prophet Isaiah renews his warnings, emphasizing themes of sin, impending judgment, and eventual deliverance. Isaiah’s messages, which form the core of the first part of the "Book of Isaiah," highlight the complex interaction between political actions and religious beliefs, shaping Judah's identity amid the imperial threats.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 705 to 694 BCE is marked by resistance to Assyrian hegemony, strategic urban developments, and significant religious and cultural advancements. Hezekiah's persistent quest for autonomy, despite setbacks, symbolizes Judah’s enduring resilience, while the cultural revival seen in Troy and Abydos underscores wider patterns of regional renewal and increased connectivity.

Isaiah, again after a time of silence, addresses Hezekiah's second attempt, from 705 to 701, to establish political independence.

Compiled as the first part of the “Book of Isaiah,” the writings from these periods fall into seven collections of sayings on themes of sin, judgment, and deliverance from the judgment. (Christians will interpret Isaiah’s Immanuel prophecies in Chapters 6—12 as references to Christ.)

At the accession of the Assyrian king Sennacherib in 705 BCE, further rebellions break out all over the empire.

Hezekiah, according to 2 Kings 20:20, 2 Chronicles 32:30, may be the leader of the rebellion in Palestine, which includes the city-states of Ascalon and Ekron and gains the support of Egypt.

In preparing for the inevitable Assyrian campaign to retake Palestine, Hezekiah strengthens the defenses of his capital and digs out the famous Siloam tunnel, which brings the water of the Gihon springs to a reservoir inside the city wall.

Hezekiah succumbs, however, to the might of Sennacherib, who in 701 overruns Judah, takes forty-six of its walled cities and places much conquered Judaean territory under the control of neighboring states.

While Sennacherib is besieging the city of Lachish, Hezekiah seeks to spare Jerusalem itself from capture by paying a heavy tribute of gold and silver to the Assyrian king, who nevertheless demands the city's unconditional surrender.

According to 2 Kings, Jerusalem is saved by a miraculous plague that decimates the Assyrian army (”smitten by the angel of the Lord”) felling one hundred and eighty-five thousand men. (Contradictory dates for Sennacherib's invasion are given in the Book of Kings, and he may possibly have invaded Judah a second time near the close of Hezekiah's reign.)

Though forced to withdraw, Sennacherib compels Hezekiah to renew his tribute payments to Assyria.