Conradin’s cause seems to prosper, notwithstanding the defection of his uncle Louis and of other companions who have returned to Germany, the threats of Clement IV, and a lack of funds.

Proclaiming him King of Sicily, his partisans, among them Prince Henry of Castile, both in the north and south of Italy have taken up arms; Rome receives his envoy with enthusiasm; and the young king himself receives welcomes at Pavia, Pisa and Siena.

Prince Frederick of Castile, unhappy under the rule of his elder brother Alfonso, he may have participated in the rebellion of his brother Henry in 1255; in any case, he had been exiled from Castile in 1260 and joined Henry as a knight errant in Tunis serving under Sultan Al Mustansir against his enemies.

H later joined the service of King Manfred of Sicily, and in 1266 fought at the Battle of Benevento.

He escaped the defeat there and returned to Tunis.

The anti-Angevin revolt in Sicily in 1267 provides an opportunity for him to cross over again: his Spanish fleet, carrying also a number of knights from Pisa, and Spanish knights soldiering from Tunis, disembarks in the Sicilian city of Sciacca in September 1267, and most of the island rebels against the Angevin rule while Henry (now Senator of Rome) also declares for Conradin in Rome.

Only Palermo and Messina remain loyal to Charles.

The revolt spreads to Calabria and Apulia.

The Death of John II of Brabant and the Regency Under the Charter of Kortenberg (1312)

On October 27, 1312, John II, Duke of Brabant, died in Tervuren and was buried in St. Michael and Gudula Cathedral in Brussels. His death marked the end of his reign, during which he had fostered economic prosperity, opposed French expansion, and introduced political reforms in Brabant.

Succession and Regency Under the Charter of Kortenberg

• John II’s twelve-year-old son, John III, succeeded him as Duke of Brabant.
• Because of the duke’s young age, a regency was required to govern the duchy.
• Under the terms of the Charter of Kortenberg, which John II had granted earlier in 1312, Brabant’s major towns were given the authority to appoint councilors to oversee the regency.

Impact of the Charter of Kortenberg on the Regency

• This arrangement marked an early form of representative governance, giving urban representatives and nobility a structured role in administration.
• The councilors appointed under the charter helped maintain stability during John III’s minority, ensuring that Brabant’s economic and political interests were protected.
• This governance model was progressive for medieval Europe, prefiguring the development of more participatory political systems in the Low Countries.

Legacy

• The Charter of Kortenberg ensured continuity in Brabant’s administration, preventing political turmoilafter John II’s death.
• John III would later build on his father’s policies of economic expansion and territorial consolidation, further strengthening Brabant’s position in the Low Countries.
• The involvement of towns in the regency helped reinforce Brabant’s tradition of political consultation, which would influence the broader development of constitutional governance in Europe.

The death of John II in 1312 marked the beginning of a new era in Brabant, where urban influence in governance expanded, shaping the duchy’s political evolution for the centuries to come.

John III of Brabant’s Marriage and the Breakdown of Franco-Brabant Relations (1311–1316)

As part of a gesture of rapprochement with France, Duke John III of Brabant married Marie d'Évreux (1303–1335) in 1311. Marie was the daughter of Count Louis d'Évreux and Margaret of Artois, making her the niece of King Philip IV of France. This dynastic alliance was meant to strengthen ties between Brabant and France, but tensions quickly emerged.

French Demands and Brabant’s Refusal (1316)

• In 1316, the new French king, Louis X, sought to use Brabant as an ally against Flanders, a long-standing rival of the French Crown.
• He demanded that Brabant cut off trade with Flanders and participate in a French military campaign against the rebellious Flemish.
• However, the Brabantine councilors, representing the duchy’s powerful merchant towns, found this demand impossible to fulfill, as Brabant was economically dependent on trade with Flanders, particularly its textile and commercial networks.

Louis X’s Retaliation and Violation of Treaty Terms

• In reprisal for Brabant’s refusal, Louis X prohibited all French trade with Brabant in February 1316, dealing a major economic blow to the duchy.
• This move violated a treaty of friendship that Louis had personally signed with Brabant in October 1315, further souring relations.
• The embargo highlighted the growing conflict between Brabant’s economic interests and French royal ambitions, demonstrating that marital alliances alone could not override economic realities.

Impact and Legacy

• The failed alignment pushed Brabant toward a more neutral or anti-French stance, as it needed to maintain commercial independence from France.
• The duchy increasingly positioned itself as a key player in the Low Countries, balancing between the competing influences of France, the Holy Roman Empire, and Flanders.
• The conflict foreshadowed Brabant’s later role in resisting French centralization efforts while continuing to profit from its powerful mercantile economy.

John III’s marriage alliance with France (1311), though politically strategic, failed to secure long-term Franco-Brabant relations, as economic priorities ultimately overrode dynastic ties.

Brabant Shifts Alliances: The Saint-Quentin Treaty and the Marriage of Margaret (1343–1347)

In 1343, Duke John III of Brabant had sought papal dispensation for the marriage of his daughter Margaret to Prince Edward of Woodstock, the son of Edward III of England. However, as Edward’s finances weakened and his military focus shifted elsewhere, the Brabant-English alliance unraveled, forcing John to seek a new diplomatic arrangement.

Brabant Aligns with France: The Treaty of Saint-Quentin (1347)

• In September 1345, representatives of France and Brabant met at Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye to negotiate a shift in Brabant’s alliances.
• This led to the Treaty of Saint-Quentin, signed on June 1347, in which:
  • Brabant formally aligned with France, abandoning its previous English connections.
  • Margaret of Brabant was betrothed to Louis of Male, the newly inherited Count of Flanders.

The Marriage of Margaret and the Strengthening of Brabant-Flanders Relations

• Louis of Male, the new Count of Flanders, had little real power over the independent-minded Flemish communes, which had long resisted comital authority.
• By marrying Margaret of Brabant, the House of Flanders secured an important alliance with Brabant, which had territorial ambitions in the Low Countries.
• A major point of dispute between Brabant and Flanders had been the Lordship of Mechelen, a strategic enclave within Brabant.
  • As part of the treaty, it was agreed that Mechelen would now come under full Brabantine control, strengthening Brabant’s territorial claims.

Impact and Legacy

• The Treaty of Saint-Quentin marked a significant shift in Brabant’s foreign policy, as it now firmly aligned with France rather than England.
• The marriage between Margaret and Louis of Male reinforced the Brabant-Flanders connection, influencing regional politics in the Low Countries.
• The transfer of Mechelen to Brabant was a diplomatic victory for John III, securing greater territorial consolidation.

The failure of Brabant’s English alliance and its new alignment with France in 1347 shaped the political balance in the Low Countries, ensuring that Brabant remained a key player in Franco-Flemish relations for years to come.

The History of Breda: From Imperial Fief to Brabant and Beyond (1080–1350)

Breda, strategically located on the Mark River, approximately 27 miles (43 km) south of present-day Rotterdam, was a key stronghold along the trade route to Antwerp. Originally a direct fief of the Holy Roman Emperor, Breda evolved into a fortified city and later became a critical northern strongpoint for the Duchy of Brabant.

Early History and Municipal Development

• The earliest known lord of Breda was Henry of Brunesheim (1080–1125), who governed the fief under imperial authority.
• In 1252, Breda obtained a municipal charter, granting the city:
  • The right to self-governance.
  • Permission to build fortifications, leading to the construction of brick walls and Roman-style gates.

Transfer to Brabant (1327)

• In 1327, Adelheid of Gaveren Breda sold Breda to John III, Duke of Brabant, integrating the city into the northern frontier of the Duchy of Brabant.
• This move strengthened Brabant’s defensive position against neighboring counties and made Breda an important military and trade center.

Resale to John II of Wassenaar (1350): The Capital of the Barony of Breda

• In 1350, Breda was resold to John II of Wassenaar (d. 1377).
• Under his rule, Breda became the capital of the Barony of Breda, marking a new phase of governance and regional influence.

Strategic and Political Importance

• Breda’s location along key trade routes between Holland, Brabant, and Flanders made it a valuable economic and military asset.
• As part of the barony, Breda continued to play a crucial role in the regional power struggles of the Low Countries, particularly during the Late Middle Ages.

By 1350, Breda had transformed from an imperial fief to a fortified city, then into a Brabantine stronghold, and finally into the capital of a rising noble barony, setting the stage for its continued importance in Dutch history.