Al-Walid also has had mosques built at Medina and Jerusalem (the al-Aqsa Mosque, rebuilt on a larger scale); these are to become famous examples of Umayyad architecture.

The mihrab, a prayer niche in the qiblah wall (that facing Mecca) of a mosque; of variable size but usually ornately decorated, originates in the reign of al-Walid.

The structure is an adaptation of the prayer niches common to the oratories of Coptic Christian monks.

When compared to the first Muslim buildings of Iraq and Egypt, the monuments of al-Walid at Damascus, Medina, and Jerusalem are characterized by the growing complexity of their forms, by the appearance of uniquely Muslim symbolic and functional features, and by the quality of their construction.

A first and essential component of al-Walid's mosques is their imperial character; they are to symbolize the permanent establishment of the new faith and of the state that derived from it.

John Damascene, who had succeeded his father to high office as a treasury official under the Muslim caliph, in around 715 enters the monastery of Saint Sabas (Mar Saba) near Jerusalem, where he studies theology, eventually to receive ordination as a priest.

Christian religious pictures and relics as objects of veneration in worship services is the defining issue of the era, as East Roman Emperor Leo III, in undertaking a set of civil reforms, begins to speak out publicly in 726 against the use of sacred pictures, and orders the destruction of the image of Christ at the Chalke palace in Constantinople.

Popular revolts against iconoclasm break out in the late 720s in the Cyclades, Naples, Venice, Rome, and elsewhere.

Many Greek theologians, including John Damascene, react to the new policy by developing an elaborate theory and defense of holy images and their place in worship.

Leo, proclaiming Iconoclasm the official policy of the empire in 730, orders the removal and destruction of sacred pictures in churches.

His policies meet particularly strong opposition from monastic circles.

Pope Gregory II also strongly rejects his efforts to impose Iconoclasm upon areas of Italy under imperial control.

The two outbreaks of Iconoclasm in the Empire during the eighth and ninth centuries are unusual in that the use of images is the main issue in the dispute, rather than a byproduct of wider concerns.

Iconoclasm in Christianity has generally been motivated by a literal interpretation of the Ten Commandments, which forbid the making and worshiping of "graven images".

As with other doctrinal issues in the Byzantine period, the controversy is by no means restricted to the clergy, or to arguments from theology.

Iconoclasm seems to have been supported by many from the East of the Empire, and refugees from the provinces taken over by the Muslims.

The continuing cultural confrontation with, and military threat from, Islam probably has a bearing on the attitudes of both sides.

It has been suggested that their strength in the army at the start of the period, and the growing influence of Balkan forces in the army (generally considered to lack strong iconoclast feelings) over the period may have been important factors in both beginning and ending imperial support for iconoclasm.

Eastern Southeast Europe (724–735 CE): Iconoclasm and Religious Controversy

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Continued Stability and Cultural Cohesion

From 724 to 735 CE, demographic stability continued within Eastern Southeast Europe, particularly among the well-established Slavic and Bulgar populations. Cultural integration remained strong, supporting regional identity despite broader religious and political upheavals.

Political and Military Developments

Arab Threat Management

The Byzantine Empire remained vigilant against intermittent Arab threats but enjoyed a brief respite following previous successful defenses. Military fortifications continued to be maintained, securing vital regions against external incursions.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Stability Through Defensive Strategies

Economic conditions remained stable, supported by continued strategic investment in defense infrastructure. Fortifications and defensive preparations around major urban centers safeguarded vital trade routes and agricultural productivity.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Religious and Cultural Conflict: Iconoclasm

The defining issue of this era was the Iconoclast controversy, initiated by Emperor Leo III, who publicly condemned the veneration of religious images beginning in 726. Leo's order to destroy the image of Christ at Constantinople's Chalke palace symbolized the policy's aggressive implementation.

Artistic Resistance and Theological Defense

Popular revolts erupted throughout the Byzantine territories, including the Cyclades, Naples, Venice, and Rome, illustrating widespread opposition to iconoclasm. Prominent theologians, notably John Damascene, articulated detailed defenses of religious imagery, firmly establishing theological arguments in support of icons.

Social and Religious Developments

Institutional Division: East vs. West

Emperor Leo III formally declared Iconoclasm as imperial policy in 730, mandating the removal and destruction of sacred images in churches. His stance faced vehement opposition from monastic communities and the broader ecclesiastical establishment, intensifying the rift between imperial authority and religious practice.

Opposition from the Papacy

Pope Gregory II notably rejected Leo III's iconoclastic directives, particularly in regions of Italy under Byzantine influence, underscoring the growing ecclesiastical divide between Eastern Orthodoxy and Western Christianity. This controversy contributed significantly to long-term doctrinal and institutional divergences between East and West.

Impact of Cultural and Military Context

Iconoclasm’s support was particularly pronounced among military and administrative groups from the Empire’s eastern provinces, many influenced by cultural confrontations and threats from Islam. Conversely, Balkan military contingents, generally less supportive of iconoclasm, played a role in influencing imperial attitudes over the era.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 724 to 735 CE was deeply marked by the Iconoclast controversy, reshaping Byzantine society, theology, and politics. The religious conflicts that emerged during this period established critical ideological and ecclesiastical distinctions, profoundly influencing the historical development of Eastern Orthodoxy and its complex relationship with Western Christianity.

Leo’s initial move against the cult of images has been followed by other measures instituted over the past four years to suppress the veneration of images.

In reaction to the new policy, many theologians of the Eastern Roman Empire, including John Damascene, have developed an elaborate theory and defense of holy images and their place in worship.

John, basing his argument on the doctrine of the incarnation of Christ and on Neoplatonic philosophical ideas, maintains that the holy icon through divine grace partakes of the spiritual essence of the figure it portrays, and, as the product of the emanation of its holiness, embodies the essential point of direct contact between the human and divine realms.

Proclaiming Iconoclasm the official policy of the empire in 730, Leo orders the removal and destruction of sacred pictures in churches.

When Patriarch Germanus of Constantinople refuses his demand for approval of these policies, Leo removes him and appoints a patriarch of his own choice, Anastasius, who willingly sides with the Emperor on the question of icons.

Where necessary, Leo employs harsh penalties, such as beatings and imprisonment, against recalcitrant ecclesiastics.

His policies meet particularly strong opposition from monastic circles.

Pope Gregory II also strongly rejects his efforts to impose Iconoclasm upon areas of Italy under imperial control.

The town of Umm el Kanatir and its ancient synagogue are destroyed.

The building was eighteen meters (sixty feet) long by thirteen meters (forty-three feet) wide and calculated to have been twelve meters (forty feet) high, making it one of the largest of at least twenty-five ancient synagogues discovered in the region.

John Damascene, a leading figure in the defense of icons in the iconoclastic controversy, dies on December 4, 749, at the Great Lavra of St. Sabbas the Sanctified in Palestine.

He leaves a number of “kanons” and many theological writings, including his principal work, the three-part “Fountain of Knowledge.” The work’s first part is a study of Greek philosophy; the second, a history of heresies; and the third, a synthesis of the doctrines Eastern Fathers of the church.