Louis I d'Orléans

The Navarrese Counteroffensive and English Withdrawal (October 1512)

By mid-October 1512, King John III of Navarre, determined to reclaim his kingdom from Ferdinand II of Aragon's forces, assembled a 15,000-strong army composed of:

• Navarrese loyalists
• Gascon mercenaries from Béarn and Guyenne
• Landsknechts, elite German infantry

With this force, John III launched a counteroffensive, advancing into Gipuzkoa and the Navarrese heartland, seeking to retake key fortresses and push back Castilian occupation.

Navarrese Three-Pronged Invasion

The counterattack was structured into three military columns, each with distinct objectives:

1. Siege of Hondarribia and Donostia (San Sebastián)

   • The first column laid siege to Hondarribia and Donostia, major Castilian-held towns in Gipuzkoa.
   • The Navarrese also occupied smaller surrounding towns to divert Castilian forces from reinforcing Pamplona, which remained under siege.

2. Central Assault on Castilian Positions in Navarre

   • The main column advanced into the heartland of Navarre, directly challenging Castilian control over Pamplona and surrounding fortresses.

3. Diversionary Raids in Eastern Navarre

   • A third column targeted weaker Castilian outposts, harassing supply lines and disrupting Spanish logistics.

The English Abandon Ferdinand II and Withdraw

• The English, originally aligned with Ferdinand II in the Holy League, had become frustrated with his shifting political priorities and lack of clear military coordination.
• By late 1512, the English decided to leave the war, returning home after raiding and sacking several towns and villages, including Errenteria.
• Their departure weakened Castilian military strength, further encouraging the Navarrese resistance.

Significance of the Counterattack

• The Navarrese offensive demonstrated that John III was still capable of resisting Ferdinand’s occupation.
• The loss of English support weakened Castile’s military advantage, making Ferdinand’s hold on Navarre more vulnerable.
• The siege of Hondarribia and Donostia placed pressure on Castilian forces in Gipuzkoa, forcing them to split their army between defending northern and southern fronts.

Conclusion: Navarre’s Fight for Survival Continues

• Although John III’s counteroffensive created serious challenges for Castile, Navarre remained heavily outmatched in resources and manpower.
• The war was not yet decided, and the fate of Navarre’s independence still hung in the balance.
• The events of late 1512 marked the final phase of the struggle for Navarre, setting the stage for the last major battles of the campaign.

The Revolt of Estella-Lizarra and Monjardín: The Rising Against Castilian Rule (October 1512)

As John III of Navarre’s counteroffensive gained momentum, news of the Navarrese-French victories, particularly at Ainhize (October 19, 1512), spread across occupied Navarre, inspiring local uprisings against Castilian forces.

The Revolt of Estella-Lizarra and Monjardín

• Upon hearing of the Navarrese army’s advance, the townspeople of Estella-Lizarra and the garrison of Monjardín fortress revolted against the Castilian occupiers.
• Estella-Lizarra had long been a stronghold of Navarrese resistance, and its inhabitants saw the counterattack as an opportunity to reclaim their freedom.
• The Monjardín fortress, a key defensive position overlooking the surrounding valleys, also joined the revolt, putting additional pressure on Castilian control.

Strategic Importance of Estella-Lizarra

• Located along the main route between Pamplona and the western part of Navarre, Estella-Lizarra was a vital stronghold.
• Its revolt threatened Castilian supply lines, making it harder for Ferdinand II’s forces to reinforce Pamplona.
• The rebellion demonstrated that many Navarrese towns were still loyal to John III, undermining Castilian efforts to secure Upper Navarre permanently.

Impact on the Castilian Occupation

• The uprising in Estella-Lizarra forced Castilian commanders to redirect troops, weakening their overall defensive positions.
• The rebellion encouraged further resistance in other occupied areas, deepening the crisis for Ferdinand’s forces.
• With Navarrese troops advancing from multiple fronts, Pamplona’s Castilian garrison found itself increasingly isolated.

However, despite these successes, Navarre’s fate was still uncertain. While the counteroffensive was gaining ground, Ferdinand II of Aragon was preparing to respond with overwhelming force. The battle for Navarre was far from over.

The Siege of Pamplona Begins (October 24, 1512)

By October 24, 1512, the Duke of Alba, Ferdinand II of Aragon’s commander, arrived in Pamplona as the Navarrese-French counteroffensive advanced. Following him, loyalist forces of King John III of Navarre laid siege to the city, aiming to retake the Navarrese capital from Castilian occupation.

The Context: The Navarrese Counteroffensive Gains Ground

• After their victory at Ainhize on October 19, 1512, the Navarrese army, led by John III and supported by French forces, launched a multi-pronged invasion into occupied Navarre.
• Meanwhile, local uprisings erupted in Estella-Lizarra and the Monjardín fortress, further challenging Castilian control.
• Facing the real possibility of losing Pamplona, the Duke of Alba hastily withdrew his forces to the city, reinforcing its defenses before the arrival of Navarrese siege forces.

The Siege of Pamplona

• The Navarrese loyalists, numbering thousands, surrounded the city, cutting off supply routes and blocking reinforcements.
• The Castilian garrison, led by the Duke of Alba, prepared for a prolonged defense, knowing that Pamplona was key to maintaining control over Navarre.
• Both sides understood that whoever held Pamplona would ultimately dictate the fate of the kingdom.

Strategic Importance of Pamplona

• As Navarre’s capital, Pamplona was the administrative and military center of the kingdom.
• If John III and his allies retook the city, it would reverse Castilian annexation and restore Navarre’s independence.
• If Ferdinand II’s forces held out, they could secure permanent control over Upper Navarre.

The Siege’s Impact on the War

• The siege put enormous pressure on Castilian forces, forcing Ferdinand to consider further reinforcements.
• It marked the most serious challenge to Castilian rule since the initial invasion in July 1512.
• Navarrese resistance was far from broken, proving that John III and his supporters were still capable of reclaiming their homeland.

Conclusion: A Critical Moment in the Navarrese Struggle

The Siege of Pamplona in October 1512 was the climax of Navarre’s resistance against Castilian conquest. With the Duke of Alba defending the city and Navarrese forces determined to reclaim it, the battle for Navarre’s sovereignty reached its decisive phase. The outcome of the siege would determine whether Navarre remained independent or fell permanently under Castilian rule.

The Fall of Estella-Lizarra and Monjardín: The End of the Last Navarrese Stronghold (Late 1512)

As Navarrese-French forces besieged Pamplona in October 1512, the rebellion in Estella-Lizarra became a key secondary front in the struggle for Navarre. However, the loyalist uprising was soon confronted by Castilian forces, leading to the final defeat of the Navarrese resistance in the western part of the kingdom.

The Navarrese Uprising in Estella-Lizarra

• The rebels in Estella-Lizarra, led by John Ramírez de Baquedano and Jaime Velaz de Medrano, had risen against the Castilian occupiers following news of the Navarrese counteroffensive.
• Estella-Lizarra, a stronghold of Navarrese loyalty, and the nearby fortress of Monjardín became key centers of resistance.
• The uprising threatened Castilian control over western Navarre, forcing Ferdinand II’s forces to respond swiftly.

The Castilian Response and the Siege of Monjardín

• Pedro de Beaumont, a leading noble of the Beaumont party (pro-Castilian Navarrese faction), led the Castilian counterattack.
• He was supported by two powerful Castilian commanders:
  • The Duke of Nájera
  • The Marquis of Comares
• The Castilians overwhelmed the defenders, forcing the Navarrese leaders to make a last stand in the Monjardín fortress.
• After a prolonged siege, Baquedano and Medrano realized resistance was futile, leading to a negotiated capitulation.

Consequences of the Fall of Estella-Lizarra and Monjardín

1. The End of Navarrese Resistance in Western Navarre

   • With the fall of Estella-Lizarra and Monjardín, Castilian forces secured the western part of the kingdom, cutting off a key support base for the Navarrese counteroffensive.

2. Increased Pressure on the Siege of Pamplona

   • The defeat at Estella-Lizarra forced Navarrese forces to consolidate their position around Pamplona, putting greater strain on their supply lines.

3. Castilian Consolidation of Navarre

   • The loss of these last strongholds made Navarre’s recovery even more difficult, paving the way for Castile’s full annexation of Upper Navarre.

Conclusion: A Crushing Blow to Navarrese Hopes

The fall of Estella-Lizarra and Monjardín in late 1512 was a devastating blow to Navarre’s resistance against Castilian occupation. While the Navarrese counteroffensive had made significant gains, the loss of these key strongholds meant that Castile was now in a stronger position to hold onto Navarre. The final battle for the kingdom would now be decided in Pamplona.

The Siege of Pamplona Ends and the Castilian Hold on Navarre Strengthens (Late 1512)

The investment of Pamplona by Navarrese loyalists and their French allies lasted for about a month, but as winter approached, the arrival of fresh Castilian reinforcements made it impossible to achieve a successful outcome. The siege was ultimately lifted, marking a decisive moment in the Castilian conquest of Navarre.

Reasons for the Loyalist Retreat

1. Oncoming Winter

   • The harsh Pyrenean winter made it increasingly difficult for the besieging forces to maintain their supply lines.
   • The cold and dwindling provisions weakened the morale of Navarrese and Gascon troops.

2. Arrival of Castilian Reinforcements

   • Ferdinand II of Aragon sent additional troops from Castile, strengthening the defensive garrison of Pamplona.
   • This tipped the balance in favor of the Castilian defenders, making a successful assault unrealistic.

3. Navarrese and French Tactical Withdrawal

   • Seeing the impossibility of continuing the siege, Navarrese forces retreated to regroup.
   • The Castilians reasserted their hold over Upper Navarre, while focusing efforts on maintaining their grip on Lower Navarre.

Castilian Forces Move into Lower Navarre

• After securing Pamplona, Castilian troops moved north across the Pyrenees, returning to St-Jean-Pied-de-Port and Lower Navarre (Ultrapuertos, Deça-Ports).
• While they maintained control over these positions, they faced ongoing resistance.

Skirmishes in Lower Navarre: Resistance from the Lord of Luxe (Lukuze)

• The disgruntled Beaumont party’s lord of Luxe (Lukuze) launched regular attacks on Castilian forcesstationed in Lower Navarre.
• These skirmishes, ambushes, and small raids made it difficult for Castile to fully pacify the region.
• The continued fighting demonstrated that although Castile had won Upper Navarre, the war was not yet over.

Conclusion: The Final Phase of Navarre’s Resistance

• With the end of the siege of Pamplona, the Castilian conquest of Upper Navarre was virtually complete.
• However, Lower Navarre remained contested, with local lords and French-backed forces continuing to resist.
• Although Ferdinand II had successfully annexed Upper Navarre into the Crown of Castile, the fight for Lower Navarre and Navarrese independence would continue for years.

The failure to retake Pamplona in late 1512 marked a turning point, making the final conquest of Navarre by Castile inevitable, despite ongoing resistance in Lower Navarre.

The Skirmish at the Belate Pass and the Mythologization of a Battle (December 7, 1512)

As the Navarrese counteroffensive collapsed, a detachment of retreating Navarrese landsknechts found themselves guarding twelve artillery pieces at the Belate Pass, a key mountain route in the Pyrenees. On December 7, 1512, they were intercepted by a Gipuzkoan militia patrol, led by Juan de Silva, the governor of Gipuzkoa.

The Skirmish at Belate Pass

• The Gipuzkoan militia engaged the outnumbered and weakened landsknechts, who were in retreat and in disarray.
• The German mercenaries attempted to withdraw, but the militia pursued and slaughtered many of them.
• The artillery pieces were seized by the Gipuzkoans, marking an important symbolic victory in the ongoing conflict.

The Skirmish Becomes a Legendary "Battle"

• Although the actual engagement was a minor skirmish, later accounts exaggerated the event, portraying it as a major battle.
• The cannons seized at Belate were incorporated into the official coat of arms of Gipuzkoa in 1513, commemorating the region’s contribution to the Castilian conquest of Navarre.
• Over time, the victory was mythologized, elevating Juan de Silva and the Gipuzkoan militia as key figures in defending Castilian interests.

Significance of the Skirmish

1. Final Blow to the Navarrese Counteroffensive

   • The defeat of the landsknechts at Belate marked the complete disintegration of Navarre’s military resistance in 1512.

2. Symbolic Victory for Castilian and Gipuzkoan Forces

   • The event strengthened Castilian morale and was used as propaganda to justify the conquest of Navarre.

3. Integration of Navarre into Castile

   • With the Navarrese counterattack fully crushed, Upper Navarre was permanently secured for the Crown of Castile.
   • Lower Navarre remained contested, but Castile’s hold on Pamplona and the surrounding regions was now unchallenged.

Conclusion: The End of Navarre’s Military Resistance in 1512

The skirmish at Belate Pass on December 7, 1512, though a minor engagement, was inflated into a legendary battle to glorify Castilian and Gipuzkoan efforts. With this final defeat, the Navarrese counteroffensive collapsed, and Upper Navarre remained under Spanish rule, marking the effective end of Navarre’s military resistance in 1512.

The Castilian Consolidation of Navarre and the Establishment of the Viceroyalty (1512–1513)

By December 1512, the remaining clashes in Navarre were limited to St-Jean-Pied-de-Port and its surrounding areas, which were still occupied by Castilian forces. However, with the Navarrese counteroffensive crushed, Ferdinand II of Aragon moved swiftly to secure Castilian control over Upper Navarre through a combination of military occupation and political maneuvering.

The Appointment of the First Castilian Viceroy (1513)

• Diego Fernández de Córdoba was appointed the first Viceroy of Navarre, responsible for administering the newly conquered territory on behalf of the Spanish Crown.
• His role was to oversee the integration of Navarre into Castile, while managing local resistance and ensuring stability.

The Parliament of Navarre and Ferdinand’s Coronation (March 1513)

• From March 13–23, 1513, the Parliament of Navarre (Cortes de Navarra) was convened, but it was dominated by pro-Castilian Beaumont party representatives who had sided with Ferdinand during the conquest.
• The Parliament formally accepted Ferdinand II of Aragon as "natural lord and king" of Navarre, legitimizing his rule over the kingdom.
• In turn, Ferdinand made concessions, agreeing to maintain Navarrese institutions, laws (fueros), and cultural identity, ensuring a degree of local autonomy.

The Oath to Respect Navarrese Law (1513)

• At the same time, Viceroy Diego Fernández de Córdoba took an official oath to respect Navarrese law (fueros).
• This was an important symbolic and political gesture, meant to pacify the remaining opposition by recognizing Navarre’s historical rights and privileges.
• However, in practice, Castilian rule gradually eroded Navarrese autonomy, leading to further resistance in Lower Navarre and tensions over the coming decades.

Impact and Long-Term Consequences

1. Castilian Rule is Officially Established in Upper Navarre

   • Ferdinand’s formal recognition as King of Navarre in 1513 solidified Castilian control over the region, marking the end of Navarre’s independence south of the Pyrenees.

2. Navarrese Institutions Were Preserved (For Now)

   • While Ferdinand promised to uphold Navarre’s laws and institutions, future Spanish monarchs would gradually centralize power, reducing Navarre’s autonomy over time.

3. Resistance Continues in Lower Navarre

   • Lower Navarre (north of the Pyrenees) remained under the House of Albret, with Catherine and John III continuing to claim their right to the throne.
   • St-Jean-Pied-de-Port became a focal point of resistance, with French-backed Navarrese forces launching occasional raids.

Conclusion: Navarre’s Formal Annexation into Castile

The events of March 1513 marked the final political consolidation of Castilian rule over Upper Navarre. Although local institutions were nominally preserved, Navarre was now a Spanish vassal state, ruled by a Castilian viceroy. Despite this, the fight for Navarre’s independence continued north of the Pyrenees, keeping the dream of a free Navarre alive in Lower Navarre for years to come.

enry VIII's Expedition to Calais and the March Toward Thérouanne (June 1513)

In May and June 1513, English forces under King Henry VIII began gathering in strength at Calais, marking the onset of Henry’s ambitious military campaign against France. Initially commanded by George Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, appointed Lieutenant-General on May 12, the English army grew steadily as noblemen and their retainers arrived, meticulously recorded in the contemporary Chronicle of Calais from June 6 onward.

Organization and Command Structure

The English force assembled was substantial and diverse. Shrewsbury commanded the vanguard, numbering around eight thousand men, while Charles Somerset, Lord Herbert, oversaw the rearguard comprising about six thousand troops. King Henry himself arrived at Calais with the main force—approximately eleven thousand soldiers—on June 30, 1513, dramatically reinforcing morale and underscoring the seriousness of the expedition.

The organization of Henry’s army reflected a sophisticated combination of troop types and military innovations. The assembled force included cavalry, artillery units, disciplined infantry formations, English longbowmen equipped with specially hardened steel-tipped arrows capable of penetrating contemporary armor, and notably, a contingent of eight hundred German mercenaries marching prominently ahead of the king, reflecting the continental military practices and alliances of the period.

The provisioning and administration of Henry's troops were coordinated by the rising political figure Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, acting as the King's Almoner, a position crucial in securing logistical and financial resources for the army.

Governance in England During Henry’s Absence

As Henry departed for the campaign, he appointed his queen, Catherine of Aragon, as Rectrix et Gubernatrix("Rector and Governor") to administer England and Wales in his stead. Catherine's temporary rule during Henry’s absence across the Channel highlighted both the King's trust in her leadership capabilities and the political significance attached to this military venture.

Strategic Goals and Implications

Henry’s primary strategic goal was to capture the fortified town of Thérouanne, a key defensive and logistical point in northern France. Its fall would significantly bolster English presence in continental Europe and challenge French influence directly. The size, organization, and symbolic weight of Henry’s personally led army underscored his determination to establish England as a central European military power, aligning closely with broader Holy League objectives.

Consequences and Legacy

Henry VIII’s personal presence at Calais and subsequent march toward Thérouanne marked an ambitious step in England's ongoing struggle for prominence in European politics and warfare. The 1513 campaign, though mixed in outcomes, demonstrated Henry’s military ambitions, showcasing emerging military technologies and tactical innovations, and profoundly shaping England’s diplomatic and military trajectory throughout the sixteenth century.

Siege of Thérouanne: Henry VIII’s Encampment and Military Challenges (July 1513)

In July 1513, the English siege of Thérouanne under King Henry VIII encountered stiff resistance from the French garrison commanded by Antoine de Créquy, Sieur de Pont-Remy. Despite determined efforts, the English forces—led by George Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury—initially made limited progress. Shrewsbury set up artillery batteries and began mining operations toward the town walls, but the defenders, comprising both French and German soldiers, countered effectively, responding vigorously with sustained artillery fire, including one distinctive regular cannon shot nicknamed the "whistle" by the English troops.

Challenges and Setbacks

The siege faced logistical and tactical setbacks. Notably, two English cannons—prominently named "John the Evangelist" and the "Red Gun"—had been abandoned en route, and French skirmishing hindered their recovery, resulting in casualties among the English forces. The chronicler Edward Hall notes the significant involvement of prominent English commanders, including Henry Bourchier, Earl of Essex, and highlights tactical counsel offered by the Welsh nobleman Rhys ap Thomas.

Reports of the siege’s slow progress and logistical inefficiencies spread widely, reaching diplomatic observers as far away as Venice, damaging England's military reputation abroad. An Imperial agent of Margaret of Savoy, observing the siege, reported critically that two "obstinate men" dominated English decision-making: Charles Brandon, Viscount Lisle (whom he referred to as the "Grand Esquire"), and Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, the king’s influential Almoner.

Henry VIII’s Encampment

Henry VIII himself occupied a heavily fortified and carefully arranged encampment east of Thérouanne. English chroniclers vividly described Henry’s personal accommodations, including a robust wooden cabin equipped with an iron chimney, surrounded by elaborate, colorful tents of blue, yellow, and white fabric, prominently displaying the royal heraldic symbols—such as the Lion, Dragon, Greyhound, Antelope, and Dun Cow. The encampment itself was carefully positioned and fortified with extensive artillery, emphasizing Henry’s determination to maintain pressure on Thérouanne despite initial setbacks.

Military and Political Implications

The slow progress and tactical difficulties during the siege highlighted logistical weaknesses and challenged English military prestige. Nonetheless, the determined effort and significant resources allocated demonstrated Henry’s seriousness about projecting military power on the European continent, reinforcing his diplomatic leverage within the Holy League alliance.

Consequences and Legacy

The siege of Thérouanne became a significant military and symbolic event in Henry VIII’s early reign. Though fraught with operational difficulties, the eventual surrender of Thérouanne (later in the campaign) contributed to Henry’s personal reputation as a warrior-king. The siege also brought to prominence key figures—most notably Wolsey and Brandon—who would shape English politics and military strategy throughout the coming decades.