King Cnut of England and Denmark seeks to restore Danish rights in Norway, lost in 1016 upon the ascension of native Olaf Haraldsson as monarch.

Olaf and King Anund Jacob of Sweden, seeing the combined Anglo-Danish kingdom as a threat—Cnut's father Sweyn had asserted power over both their countries—take advantage of Cnut's being in England to attack the Danes in the Baltic Sea in 1025 or 1026, and are joined by Ulf Jarl, Cnut's Danish regent, and his brother.

Ulf Jarl is the son of Thorgils Sprakalägg, who is claimed to have been the son of Styrbjörn the Strong, a scion of the Swedish royal house, by Tyra, the daughter of king Harald Bluetooth of Denmark.

However, Thorgils' parentage may have been invented to glorify the royal dynasty founded by Ulf's son, Sweyn Estridson.

Ulf had joined Cnut’s expedition to England.

He had married Cnut's sister Estrid in about 1015 and was appointed the Jarl of Denmark, which he rules when Cnut is absent.

He is also the foster-father of Cnut's son Harthacnut.

When the Swedish and Norwegian kings attack Denmark, Ulf persuades the freemen, who are discontent at Cnut's absentee rule, to elect Harthacnut king.

This is a ruse on Ulf's part, as his role as Harthacnut's guardian will make him the ruler of Denmark.

When Cnut learns what has happened, he returns to Denmark and confronts his enemies at the Battle of the Helgeå, where the Swedish and the Norwegian navies led by kings Anund Jacob and Olaf II lie in wait up a river for the navy of King Cnut, which is commanded by Ulf Jarl.

Cnut's navy is massive and his own ship is said to have been eighty meters long.

The Swedish and the Norwegian kings had ordered a large dam made of peat and lumber to built on the river.

When the Danish navy sails in, the water is released and a great many Danes and Englishmen drown in the deluge.

However, Cnut's men are apparently able to win the battle.

The outcome is disputed, but Cnut comes out best; Olaf flees and the threat to Denmark is dispelled.

The apparent victory leaves Cnut as the dominant leader in Scandinavia.

The battle is retold in skaldic poetry and in sources such as the Danish Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus and the Icelandic Saga of Olaf the Holy by Snorri Sturluson.

Opinions are divided on whether the location was at Helgeå in Uppland or the Helgeå of eastern Skåne.

In the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the battle is dated to 1025 and the Swedes won the battle.

Norway had been divided during the ninth century among several local kings controlling their own fiefdoms.

King Harald Fairhair had managed, mainly due to the military superiority gained by his alliance with Sigurd Ladejarl of Nidaros, to subjugate these mini–kingdoms, and by the end of the century he had created the first unified Norwegian state.

This alliance had come apart after Harald's death.

The jarls of Lade and various descendants of Harald Fairhair had spent the tenth century interlocked in feuds over power.

As well as power politics, religion also plays a part in these conflicts, as two of the descendants of Harald Fairhair, Hakon the Good and Olaf Tryggvason attempted to convert the then heathen Norwegians to Christianity.

Svein (Old Norse: Sveinn) and Erik (Old Norse: Eiríkr) of Lade had in the year 1000 taken control of Norway, being supported by the Danish King Svein.

Olaf Haraldsson, representing the descendants of Harald Fairhair, had in 1015 returned from one of his Viking trips and was immediately elected as King of Norway.

He had won the Battle at Nesjar in June 1016 against the Jarls of Lade.

Olaf Haraldsson's success in becoming King of Norway had been helped by the Danes being kept occupied with the ongoing fighting in England.

Olaf II had extended his power throughout Norway while Jarl Erik was with Cnut in England.

Cnut's enmity with him extends further back: Æthelred had returned to England in a fleet provided by Olaf.

Cnut had offered in 1024 to let Olaf govern Norway as his vassal, but after Helgeå, he had set about undermining his unpopular rule with bribes, and in 1028 sets out with fifty ships to subjugate Norway.

A large contingent of Danish ships joins him, and Olaf withdraws into the Oslo Fjord while Cnut sails along the coast, landing at various points and receiving oaths of allegiance from the local chieftains.

Finally at Nidaros, now Trondheim, he is acclaimed king at the Eyrathing, and in a few months Olaf, whose hard-line imposition of Christianity has created powerful enemies within Norway, flees to Novgorod.

Norway’s last Lade, Jarl Haakkon Eiriksson, drowns in 1029, and Cnut appoints his son Svein to rule Norway with the assistance of Ælfgifu, Cnut's first wife and Svein's mother.

Olaf makes plans to return to Norway with his army to regain his throne and the Kingdom of Norway.

Olaf, returning with an army in a bid to regain his Norwegian throne, is killed on July 29, 1030, at the Battle of Stiklestad, his forces defeated by a "Peasant Army" of rival nobles, wealthy farmers and others loyal to Cnut the Great.

King Olaf—stubborn, rash and prone to torturing and murdering those who refused to submit to Christianity—will, in an ironic twist, become Norway's patron saint.

His canonization is performed only a year after his death by the bishop of Nidaros.

The cult of Olaf will not only unify the country, it will also fulfill the conversion of the nation, something for which the king had fought so hard.

He will later be canonized and become the patron saint of Norway and Rex perpetuum Norvegiae ('the eternal king of Norway').

Cnut has installed his English concubine Aelgifu as regent, but her increasing unpopularity among the Norwegians threatens his hold on the country.

Ælfgifu and Svein have made themselves unpopular by heavy taxation and favoring Danish advisers over the Norwegian nobles, and when Magnus of Norway, the son of the former King of Norway, Olaf, invades in 1035, they are forced to flee to Harthacnut's court.

Magnus is proclaimed king in 1035, at eleven years of age; Svein dies shortly after.

Magnus at first seeks revenge against his father's enemies, but on Sigvatr's advice he stops doing so, which is why he becomes known as "good" or "noble”.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reports that Harold Harefoot said that he was a son of Cnut the Great and Ælfgifu of Northampton, "although it was not true".

Florence of Worcester (twelfth century) elaborates on the subject.

Claiming that Ælfgifu wanted to have a son by the king but was unable to, she secretly adopted the newborn children of strangers and pretended to have given birth to them.

Harold was reportedly the son of a cobbler, while his brother Svein Knutsson was the illegitimate son of a priest.

She deceived Cnut into recognizing both children as his own.

Harriet O'Brien doubts that Cnut, the shrewd politician who "masterminded the bloodless takeover of Norway" could have been deceived in such a way.

She suspects that the tale started out as a popular myth, or intentional defamation presumably tailored by Emma of Normandy, the other wife of Cnut and rival to Ælfgifu.

Upon the death of Cnut on November 12, 1035, Harold's younger half-brother Harthacnut, the son of Cnut and his queen Emma of Normandy, is legitimate heir to the thrones of both the Danes and the English.

Harthacnut, however, is unable to travel to his coronation in England because his Danish kingdom is under threat of invasion by King Magnus I of Norway and King Anund Jacob of Sweden.

England's magnates favor the idea of installing Harold Harefoot temporarily as regent or joint monarch, due to the difficulty of Harthacnut's absence, and despite the opposition of Godwin, the Earl of Wessex, and the Queen, he eventually wears the crown.

There is some dispute in primary sources (the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) about Harold's initial role.

Versions E and F mention him as regent, the others as co-ruler.

Ian Howard points out that Cnut had been survived by three sons: Svein, Harold, and Harthacnut.

The Encomium Emmae Reginae also describes Edward the Confessor and Alfred Aetheling as the sons of Canute, though the modern term would be step-sons.

Harold can claim the regency or kingship because he is the only one of the five present at England in 1035.

Harthacnut is reigning in Denmark, and Svein had joined him there following his deposition from the Norwegian throne, while Edward and Alfred are in Normandy.

Harthacnut can reign in the name of his absent brothers, with Emma rivaling him as candidate for the regency.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ignores the existence of Svein, or his claim to the throne, which Howard considers as evidence of the relative entries being unreliable, of failing to give a complete picture.

The Heimskringla of Snorri Sturluson claims that Svein and Harthacnut had agreed to share the kingdom between them.

This agreement would include Denmark and (probably) England.

Snorri quotes older sources on the subject and could be preserving valuable details.

Harold reportedly seeks coronation as early as 1035.

According to the Encomium Emmae Reginae, however, Æthelnoth, Archbishop of Canterbury, refused to crown Harold Harefoot.

Coronation by the Archbishop would be a legal requirement to become a king.

Æthelnoth reportedly placed the scepter and crown on the altar of a temple, possibly that of the Canterbury Cathedral.

Offering to consecrate Harold without using any of the royal regalia would have been an empty honor.

He refused to remove the items from the altar and forbade any other bishop from doing so.

The tale goes on that Harold failed to sway Æthelnoth, as both bribes and threats proved ineffectual.

The despairing Harold reportedly rejected Christianity in protest.

He refused to attend church services while uncrowned, preoccupying himself with hunting and trivial matters.

Northwest Europe (1036–1047 CE): Fragmentation, Power Struggles, and Dynastic Change

England: Decline of Cnut’s Empire

The stability achieved under Cnut the Great rapidly dissolved following his death in 1035, plunging England into political uncertainty and dynastic struggles. Cnut's sons—Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut—contended bitterly for the throne, fracturing royal authority and generating instability throughout England from 1036 to 1042.

Initially, Harold Harefoot claimed power, ruling England from 1035 to 1040. His short reign was turbulent and marked by internal rivalries, particularly with his half-brother Harthacnut, son of Emma of Normandy. Harold’s sudden death in 1040 allowed Harthacnut, already king of Denmark, to assume the English throne. However, Harthacnut’s harsh taxation and authoritarian rule quickly alienated the nobility and populace, exacerbating England’s internal divisions.

In 1042, following Harthacnut’s sudden death, the English nobility, eager for stability, restored the Anglo-Saxon lineage by placing Edward the Confessor, son of Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy, on the throne. Edward’s accession marked the end of Danish rule in England and the restoration of the House of Wessex. His reign, though beginning amid uncertainty, laid foundations for relative peace and stability, reviving English cultural and political identity.

Scotland: Instability and Dynastic Transition

Scotland witnessed critical dynastic shifts following the death of Malcolm II in 1034. Malcolm’s grandson, Duncan I, ascended the throne, attempting to sustain his predecessor’s achievements. However, Duncan’s rule faced immediate opposition from rival claimants. His brief reign was plagued by instability, culminating in his defeat and death at the hands of Macbeth, the Mormaer (Earl) of Moray, in 1040.

Macbeth’s subsequent rise as King of Scotland (1040–1057) initiated a period of relative internal stability and strong governance. Contrary to later portrayals in Shakespeare’s drama, Macbeth’s historical reign brought notable prosperity and strengthened royal authority, benefiting from diplomatic and religious ties with Europe, notably Rome.

Ireland: Persistent Fragmentation

Throughout 1036–1047, Ireland continued to grapple with political fragmentation following the absence of a dominant High King after Brian Boru’s death in 1014. Various regional kings, particularly in Munster, Connacht, Leinster, and Ulster, vied for dominance without achieving national unity. Intermittent alliances and conflicts marked the political landscape. Despite this political instability, Ireland’s monastic tradition remained vibrant, ensuring cultural and scholarly continuity.

Norway and Denmark: Return to Separate Kingdoms

Cnut’s death had shattered the cohesion of his North Sea Empire. In Norway, after years of foreign rule, local authority was reestablished. Following the martyrdom and subsequent canonization of Olaf Haraldsson (Saint Olaf) in 1030, Norway’s identity and unity strengthened around his cult. Olaf’s son, Magnus the Good, assumed the throne in 1035, and by 1042, Magnus had also secured Denmark, temporarily uniting the two kingdoms. Magnus’s brief but successful reign restored Scandinavian autonomy, distancing Norway and Denmark from English affairs.

Iceland and Norse Atlantic Communities

During 1036–1047, Iceland continued to prosper under its unique parliamentary system, the Althing, and stable Christian institutions. The island’s population expanded, and its saga literature developed significantly, solidifying Iceland’s cultural identity. Similarly, Norse communities in the Faroes, Shetland, and Orkney experienced cultural stability and economic vitality, thriving through fishing, farming, and extensive maritime trade networks linking Scandinavia, Scotland, and Ireland.

Cultural and Religious Developments

This period witnessed significant religious consolidation. The veneration of Saint Olaf flourished widely across Scandinavia and Britain, becoming central to Northern European spirituality. The popularization of Olaf’s cult significantly contributed to the further Christianization of Norway and strengthened cultural ties across the North Sea region.

In England, the accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042 spurred renewed interest in Anglo-Saxon culture, law, and piety. His patronage would later lead to significant ecclesiastical reforms and religious revivals. The period also saw increased interactions with continental Europe, notably Normandy, influencing English architecture, culture, and political structures.

Legacy of the Era

By 1047 CE, Northwest Europe had experienced profound dynastic and political realignments. The collapse of Cnut’s empire returned England, Norway, and Denmark to independent governance, each reestablishing distinct identities. In Scotland, Macbeth’s rule provided renewed stability following a turbulent succession. Ireland’s enduring fragmentation contrasted sharply with regional stability elsewhere, yet continued to sustain rich cultural traditions. Iceland and the Norse Atlantic communities flourished culturally and economically, enhancing their distinct regional identities.

Thus, this period served as a transitional phase, reshaping regional alliances and identities, setting the stage for critical developments in Northwest Europe’s medieval history.

Norsemen had first begun raiding in what became Normandy in the late eighth century.

Permanent Scandinavian settlement occurred before 911, when Rollo, one of the Viking leaders, reached an agreement with King Charles the Simple of France, who surrenders to him the county of Rouen.

The lands around Rouen had thus become the core of the later duchy of Normandy.

Normandy may have been used as a base when Scandinavian attacks on England were renewed at the end of the tenth century, which would have worsened relations between England and Normandy.

In an effort to improve matters, King Æthelred the Unready took Emma of Normandy, sister of Duke Richard II, as his second wife in 1002.

Danish raids on England continued, and Æthelred had sought help from Richard, taking refuge in Normandy in 1013 when King Swein I of Denmark drove Æthelred and his family from England.

Swein's death in 1014 had allowed Æthelred to return home, but Swein's son Cnut had contested Æthelred's return.

Æthelred died unexpectedly in 1016, and Cnut became king of England.

Æthelred and Emma's two sons, Edward and Alfred, had gone into exile in Normandy while their mother, Emma, became Cnut's second wife.

After Cnut's death in 1035, the English throne had fallen to Harold Harefoot, his son by his first wife, while Harthacnut, his son by Emma, had become king in Denmark.

England remains unstable.

Alfred returns to England in 1036 to visit his mother and perhaps to challenge Harold as king.

One story implicates Earl Godwin of Wessex in Alfred's subsequent death, but others blame Harold.

The father of Godwin was probably Wulfnoth Cild, who was a thegn of Sussex.

His origin is unknown but 'Cild' normally refers to a man of rank.

In 1009, Wulfnoth had been accused of unknown crimes at a muster of Æthelred the Unready's fleet and fled with twenty ships; the ships sent to pursue him were destroyed in a storm.

Godwin was probably an adherent of Æthelred's eldest son, Æthelstan, who left him an estate when he died in 1014.

This estate in Compton, Sussex, had once belonged to Godwin’s father.

Although he is now always thought of as connected with Wessex, Godwin had probably been raised in Sussex, not Wessex and was probably a native of Sussex.

After Cnut seized the throne in 1016, Godwin's rise was rapid.

By 1018 he was an earl, probably of eastern Wessex, and then by around 1020 of all Wessex.

Between 1019 and 1023 he accompanied Cnut on an expedition to Denmark, where he distinguished himself, and shortly afterwards married Gytha, the sister of the Danish earl, Ulf, who was married to Cnut's sister, Estrid.

A the death of Cnut on November 12, 1035,his kingdoms had been divided among three rival rulers.

Harold Harefoot, Cnut's illegitimate son with Ælfgifu of Northampton, had seized the throne of England.

Harthacnut, Cnut's legitimate son with Emma of Normandy, reigns in Denmark.

Norway had rebelled under Magnus the Good.

The throne of England was reportedly claimed in 1035 by Alfred Ætheling, younger son of Emma of Normandy and Æthelred the Unready, and half-brother of Harthacnut.

Alfred had landed on the coast of Sussex with a Norman mercenary body guard and attempted to make his way to London.

Godwin is reported to have either captured Alfred himself or to have deceived him by pretending to be his ally and then surrendering him to the forces of Harold Harefoot.

Either way, Alfred was blinded and soon dies at Ely, probably on February 5, 1036.

During the 1920s, the remains of several hundred soldiers, probably Normans, were found to the west of Guildford.

They were bound and had been executed.

The grave has been dated to about 1040.

It is believed to be likely that they were the guards of Prince Alfred.

Harald Hardrada, after a few years in Kievan Rus', had moved on south with his force of around five hundred men men to Constantinople (Miklagard), the capital of the Byzantine Empire, probably in 1033 or 1034, where they have joined the Varangian Guard.

Although the Flateyjarbók maintains that Harald at first sought to keep his royal identity a secret, most sources agree that the reputation of Harald and his men was well known in the east at the time.

While the Varangian Guard was primarily meant to function as the emperor's bodyguard, Harald was found fighting on "nearly every frontier" of the empire.

He had first seen action in campaigns against Arab pirates in the Mediterranean, and then in inland towns in Asia Minor that had supported the pirates.

By this time, he had according to Snorri Sturluson become the "leader over all the Varangians".

The Greeks had pushed the Arabs out of Asia Minor by 1035, and Harald had taken part in campaigns that went as far east as the Euphrates, where according to his skald Þjóðólfr Arnórsson (recounted in the sagas) he had participated in the capture of eighty Arab strongholds.

Although not holding independent command of an army as the sagas imply, it is not unlikely that Harald and the Varangians at times could have been sent off to capture a castle or town.

During the first four years of the reign of Emperor Michael IV, Harald probably also fought in campaigns against the Pechenegs.

Harald is reported in the sagas to have gone to Jerusalem and fought in battles in the area; the sagas place this after his expedition to Sicily.

Whether his trip was of a military or peaceful nature would depend on whether it took place before or after the 1036 peace treaty between Michael IV and the Fatimid Caliph Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah (in reality the Caliph's mother, originally a Greek Christian, since the Caliph is a minor), although it is considered unlikely to have been made before.

Modern historians have speculated that Harald may have been in a party sent to escort pilgrims to Jerusalem (possibly including members of the Imperial family) following the peace agreement, as it was also agreed that the Greeks were allowed to repair the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

Furthermore, this may in turn have presented Harald with opportunities to fight against bandits who preyed on Christian pilgrims.