Mediterranean Southwest Europe (388–531 CE): Imperial Decline, Barbarian Ascendancy, and Cultural Transformation

The age 388–531 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe encompasses profound shifts, including the final decline of Western Roman imperial authority, the rise of Germanic kingdoms, and significant religious and cultural transformations. These events deeply influence the historical trajectory of the region, laying the foundations of medieval Europe.

Division and Decline of the Roman Empire (388–411 CE)

In 395 CE, the Roman Empire definitively splits into Western and Eastern halves, marking a turning point. The Western Empire, weakened by internal strife and external invasions, progressively dissolves. Emperor Honorius (r. 395–423 CE) struggles against invasions, commissioning his sister, Galla Placidia, and her husband, the Visigothic king Ataulf, to stabilize Iberia. Their efforts partially restore order, with the Visigoths settling permanently in Spain, subduing the Suevi, and pushing the Vandals into North Africa.

Visigothic Kingdom and Ecclesiastical Authority (412–447 CE)

The Visigoths, highly Romanized, establish their capital at Toledo by 484 CE, governing in the emperor's name as imperial patricians. Despite their relatively small numbers—approximately 300,000 among four million Hispano-Romans—their elite status significantly shapes regional politics.

Ecclesiastical institutions, especially the Council of Bishops, emerge as stabilizing forces amid declining civil governance. Bishops, possessing both civil and religious authority, effectively maintain order, reinforcing Christianity’s growing influence as a social and political force.

Ostrogothic Ascendancy and Cultural Flourishing (448–459 CE)

In Italy, Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great emerges as a dominant figure, leading his Goths against Odoacer in 489 CE and establishing the Ostrogothic Kingdom by 493 CE. Theodoric's rule blends Roman administrative practices with Gothic leadership, ushering in stability and cultural revival, exemplified by artistic masterpieces like the mosaics in Ravenna’s mausoleum of Galla Placidia.

Late Imperial Decline, Visigothic Expansion, and Vandal Incursions (460–471 CE)

Between 456 and 460 CE, Vandals under Genseric briefly occupy coastal cities in Corsica and Sardinia, an occupation formalized by Emperor Majorian. Roman authority, weakened under emperors Majorian and Anthemius, struggles to maintain territorial integrity, but General Marcellinus, possibly supported by Pope Hilarius, regains control of these territories by 466 CE.

Simultaneously, Visigoths under King Euric consolidate power in southern Gaul and Iberia, gradually dismantling Roman administrative structures and paving the way toward medieval feudalism. Amid political upheaval, Christianity remains a powerful stabilizing and cultural force.

The Fall of Western Rome and Renewed Vandal Expansion (472–483 CE)

In 476 CE, the Western Roman Empire formally collapses with the deposition of Emperor Romulus Augustulus by the Germanic chieftain Odoacer. Concurrently, Visigothic King Euric expands his dominion, firmly establishing the Visigothic Kingdom across southern Gaul and Iberia.

Between 474 and 482 CE, Sardinia again falls under Vandal rule, possibly led by Huneric. Their control secures maritime trade routes between North Africa and the Mediterranean. Sardinian cities, notably Olbia, suffer destructive raids, reflecting the island’s strategic importance.

Theodoric’s Conquest, Ostrogothic Kingdom, and Vandal Administration (484–495 CE)

From 489 CE, Theodoric leads the Ostrogoths into Italy, defeating Odoacer by 493 CE and establishing the Ostrogothic Kingdom centered at Ravenna. Concurrently, Vandals maintain a structured administrative system in Sardinia, overseen by a praeses from Caralis, supported by procurators and tax officials. The territory is divided among crown lands and Vandal warriors, though local Sardinian-Roman landowners retain estates through payments, and Barbagia maintains semi-autonomous status.

Visigothic Consolidation and Frankish Rivalry (496–507 CE)

Under Alaric II, the Visigoths enact the Breviary of Alaric (506 CE), codifying Roman law for their subjects. However, rising tensions with the Franks culminate in Alaric’s defeat and death at the Battle of Vouillé (507 CE), forcing Visigoths into a defensive position within Iberia.

Stabilization and Reorganization (508–531 CE)

After Vouillé, the Visigothic Kingdom under Amalaric stabilizes, solidifying power in Iberia. In Italy, Theodoric’s Ostrogothic Kingdom experiences continued stability, economic prosperity, and cultural vitality, reflected in architectural achievements like the Basilica of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo and Theodoric’s Mausoleum.

Cultural and Economic Continuity

Despite fragmentation, local economies adapt successfully, with robust agricultural production and active regional trade. Christianity shapes cultural norms, education, and artistic expression, preserving Roman traditions within evolving medieval contexts.

Germanic Influence and Legacy

The Suevi maintain a modest kingdom in northwestern Iberia, while the Vandals, despite limited numbers, imprint their legacy on southern Spain (Andalusia) and Sardinia, influencing regional names and historical memory.

Legacy of the Age

The era 388–531 CE signifies a critical transformation from classical Roman civilization to early medieval Europe. Visigothic and Ostrogothic kingdoms, empowered ecclesiastical structures, and cultural adaptations profoundly shape the region’s future identity. This period's enduring legacies include Roman-derived legal systems, ecclesiastical dominance, linguistic shifts (Romance languages), and foundational medieval political structures.

Maximus, according to John of Antioch, was so irritated by Valentinian’s refusal to appoint him as his magister militum that he decided to have Valentinian assassinated as well.

He chooses as accomplices Optilia and Thraustila, two Scythians who had fought under the command of Aetius and who, after the death of their general, had been appointed as Valentinian’s escort.

Maximus easily persuades them that Valentinian was the only one responsible for the death of Aetius, and that the two soldiers must avenge their old commander, while at the same time also promising them a reward for the betrayal of the Emperor.

Valentinian, who is in Rome, goes on March 16, 455, to Campus Martius with some guards, accompanied by Optilia, Thraustila and their men.

As soon as the Emperor dismounts to practice with the bow, Optilia comes up with his men and hits him in the temple.

As Valentinian turns to look at his attackers, Optilia kills him.

Thraustila at the same moment kills Heraclius.

Most of the soldiers standing close by had been faithful followers of Aetius and none lift a hand to save the emperor.

The two Scythians take the imperial diadem and robe and bring them to Maximus.

The sudden and violent death of Valentinian III leaves the Western Roman Empire without an obvious successor to the throne, with several candidates supported by various groups of the imperial bureaucracy and the military.

In particular, the army’s support is split between three main candidates: Maximianus, the former domesticus ("bodyguard") of Aëtius, who is the son of an Egyptian merchant named Domninus who had become rich in Italy; the future emperor Majorian, who commands the army after the death of Aetius and who has the backing of the Empress Licinia Eudoxia; and Maximus himself, who has the support of the Roman Senate and who in the end, on March 17, defeats his rivals and secures the throne by distributing money to officials of the imperial palace.

After gaining control of the palace, Maximus consolidates his hold on power by immediately marrying Licinia Eudoxia, the widow of Valentinian III.

She only marries him reluctantly, suspecting that in fact he had been involved in the murder of her late husband; and indeed Maximus treats Valentinian III's assassins with considerable favor.

The eastern court at Constantinople has refused to recognize Maximus’s accession, so to further secure his position, Maximus quickly recalls Avitus, appoints him as Master of Soldiers, and sends him on a mission to Toulouse to the court of Theodoric II, who had succeeded to his father, at Toulouse.

This embassy probably confirmed to the new king and his people the condition of foederati of the Empire and asked for their support for the new Emperor.

Maximus also proceeds to cancel the betrothal of Licinia’s daughter, Eudocia, to Huneric, the son of the Vandal king Genseric.

This infuriates the Vandal king, who only needs the excuse of Licinia’s despairing appeal to the Vandal court for help to begin preparations for the invasion of Italy.

The effective power of Avitus depends on the support of all the major players in the Western Roman Empire in the mid-fifth century.

The new Emperor needs the support of both the civil institutions, the Roman senate and the Eastern Roman Emperor Marcian, as well as that of the army and its commanders (the generals Majorian and Ricimer) and the Vandals of Genseric.

Avitus takes the consulate on January 1, 456, as, traditionally, the Emperors always hold the consulate in the first year upon assuming the purple.

However, his consulate sine collega (without a second Consul) is not recognized by the Eastern court, which nominates two consuls, Iohannes and Varanes.

The fact that the two courts do not agree on a couple of consuls but each nominate its own means that despite the efforts of Avitus to receive the recognition of the Eastern Emperor, the relationship between the two halves is not optimal.

Resentment among the population of Italy against the foreigner Avitus meanwhile grows.

The Gallic-Roman Emperor has given to other members of the Gallic-Roman aristocracy many key offices of the public administration usually filled by Romans.

Furthermore the population of Rome, devastated by the sack of Rome, suffers from food shortages due to the Vandal control of the naval routes, aggravated by the requirements of the foreign troops that had arrived with Avitus.

The imperial treasury is almost empty and, after disbanding his Visigoth guard because of popular pressure, Avitus is obliged to pay their huge wages by melting down and selling the bronze of some statues.

Counting on the popular discontent, on the disbandment of the imperial guard, and on the prestige gained through their victories, Ricimer and the comes domesticorum Majorian rebel against Avitus; the Emperor is obliged to leave Rome in early autumn and to move north.

Ricimer has the Roman Senate depose Avitus and …

…on September 17, 456, orders the murder of the magister militum Remistus in the Palatium at Classe, the ancient port of Ravenna.

Avitus decides to react.

He first chooses Messianus, one of his collaborators in his embassy to the Visigoths ordered by Petronius Maximus, as the new magister militum; he probably then goes to Gaul (Hydatius says to Arelate) to collect all the available forces, probably the Visigoth guard he had just disbanded; finally he leads his forces against the troops of Ricimer, near Piacenza.

The Emperor and his army enter the city and attack the huge army led by Ricimer, but on October 17 or 18, 456, after a great massacre of his men, including Messianus, Avitus flees.

Ricimer spares his life in the immediate aftermath, but forces him to become Bishop of Piacenza.

He may have died while attempting to return to Gaul.

Ricimer, having early in his military career befriended Julius Valerius Majorianus, who had served under Aetius and helped overthrow Avitus, had appointed Majorian master of the soldiers at the beginning of 457.

Majorian had quickly defeated nine hundred Alemannic invaders at Bellinzona (in present Switzerland).

As an Arian Christian and a barbarian, Ricimer cannot hope to have himself recognized as emperor in the West and seeks instead to rule through puppet emperors.

Appointed patrician (the highest military title) on Feb. 28, 457, Ricimer elevates Majorian to the Western throne a month later, but continues to hold the real governmental power.

Majorian, a conscientious administrator, ends abuses in tax collection and attempts to protect the provincials from other forms of oppression.

On December 28, Majorian is crowned emperor of the Western Roman Empire and recognized by pope Leo I.

His rule is accepted in Italy, Dalmatia and some territories in Northern Gaul.

Leo recognizes Majorian as emperor of the West in 458.