The Spanish Uprising and the Imposition of Joseph Bonaparte (March–May 1808)

By March 1808, Spain was in political turmoil, caused by military defeats, economic collapse, and public dissatisfaction with Spanish leadership. The crisis exploded into a popular uprising, leading to the downfall of King Charles IV and his powerful minister, Manuel de Godoy.

The Fall of Charles IV and the Abdication Crisis

• March 1808 – A popular revolt erupted against Godoy, the chief minister of Spain, whom many blamed for the country’s weakness and French domination.
• Under pressure from the people and the nobility, King Charles IV was forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII (r. 1808; 1814–1833).
• Ferdinand VII was briefly declared king, but Napoleon had other plans for Spain.

The Abdication at Bayonne – Spain Falls to Napoleon (May 1808)

• Napoleon summoned Ferdinand VII to Bayonne (France) under the pretense of recognizing his rule.
• Instead, he forced Ferdinand to abdicate, returning the throne to Charles IV, who then abdicated in favor of Napoleon’s brother, Joseph Bonaparte.
• With French troops already in Spain, Joseph Bonaparte was installed as the new King of Spain in June 1808.

French Military Presence and the Invasion of Portugal

• To support Joseph Bonaparte’s rule, Napoleon sent a massive French army into Spain.
• These forces were also tasked with launching a second invasion of Portugal, this time from Spanish territory.
• Portugal, Britain’s key ally, remained a central target for Napoleon’s expansionist ambitions.

The Afrancesados – Spanish Supporters of French Rule

Not all Spaniards opposed the new regime. A small but influential group known as the afrancesados welcomed Joseph Bonaparte and the French occupation.

• The afrancesados believed that Spain needed modernization, seeing Napoleon’s rule as an opportunity to reform the country along French lines.
• Many were intellectuals, bureaucrats, and progressive elites, favoring a centralized state, legal reforms, and an end to feudal privileges.
• However, they were widely despised by the majority of Spaniards, who saw them as traitors collaborating with the foreign occupiers.

The Stage is Set for the Peninsular War

With Napoleon's army occupying Spain and preparing to invade Portugal, Spain and Portugal became the central battlegrounds of the Napoleonic Wars.

However, Napoleon’s imposition of Joseph Bonaparte as king would soon trigger a massive Spanish rebellion, leading to the Peninsular War (1808–1814)—one of the most brutal and consequential conflicts of the Napoleonic era.

 

The War of Independence (1808–1814) – Spain’s Struggle Against Napoleonic Rule

In Spanish historiography, the Iberian phase of the Napoleonic Wars (1808–1814) is known as the War of Independence (Guerra de Independencia Española). It became a popular uprising, transforming into a brutal, irregular conflict that united all social classes, political factions, and regions in a common struggle against the French occupation.

A War Without Rules – The Brutality of Irregular Warfare

Unlike traditional wars with clear battle lines and rules of engagement, the War of Independence was fought as a savage, unrelenting struggle:

• Spanish guerrilla warfare became the defining feature of the conflict, with bands of armed civilians, militias, and regular troops launching surprise attacks on French forces.
• Both sides committed atrocities, leading to a cycle of violence and reprisal killings.
• The war was fought in towns, villages, and countryside, not just in open battles, making civilians direct participants and victims.

Francisco Goya – The War’s Most Famous Chronicler

The horrors of the war were immortalized by Spanish painter Francisco Goya, whose works depict the raw brutality of the conflict.

• His series of etchings, The Disasters of War (Los Desastres de la Guerra) graphically illustrates:
  • Executions, massacres, and mutilations carried out by both French and Spanish forces.
  • The suffering of civilians, including starvation, rape, and reprisals.
  • The destruction of entire villages as part of the scorched-earth tactics used by both sides.
• His famous painting "The Third of May, 1808" (El Tres de Mayo 1808) depicts French soldiers executing Spanish prisoners, capturing the merciless repression of the uprising in Madrid.

A National Struggle Against Napoleon

The Spanish resistance, initially spontaneous and disorganized, evolved into a coordinated national movement, aided by:

• The British army under the Duke of Wellington, which reinforced the Spanish and Portuguese armies.
• Local and regional juntas, which kept Spain politically fragmented but resistant.
• The deep Catholic faith of the Spanish people, which saw Napoleon’s rule as a threat to religion and motivated widespread rebellion.

The War of Independence became one of the bloodiest and most brutal conflicts of the Napoleonic Wars, not just because of the guerrilla tactics, but because it was a total war involving all levels of Spanish society.

It was not just a fight against Napoleon, but a struggle for Spain’s national identity, shaping its modern history and self-perception as a nation that resisted foreign domination.

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The British Intervention in the Iberian Peninsula (1808–1813)

As Napoleon's forces occupied Spain and Portugal, Britain saw an opportunity to support the Iberian resistancewhile striking a decisive blow against French expansion.

The British Expeditionary Force Arrives (1808–1809)

• Initially, Britain had planned to send forces to Spanish America, but after the popular uprisings in Spain, the expedition was redirected to the Iberian Peninsula.
• In 1808, British troops landed in Portugal, engaging in early battles against the French.
• In 1809, a larger contingent, commanded by Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington), arrived to take command of the British war effort in Iberia.

The Spanish Resistance – Cadiz and the Guerrillas

Despite Napoleon’s early military successes, Spain did not fully fall under French control:

• Cadiz, the last major Spanish city still in Spanish hands, remained under siege but never fell to the French.
• Meanwhile, the Spanish countryside was controlled by guerrillas, who launched relentless raids and ambushes, forcing the French to keep 250,000 of Napoleon’s best troops under Marshal Nicolas Soultoccupied in counterinsurgency operations.

Wellington and the Path to Victory

With Napoleon’s forces tied down by guerrilla warfare, Wellington waited for the right moment to launch his major offensive campaign.

• By 1812–1813, the British, Spanish, and Portuguese forces, strengthened by growing Spanish resistance, went on the offensive.
• The campaign culminated in the Battle of Vitoria (June 21, 1813), where Wellington decisively defeated the French, forcing them into full retreat toward the Pyrenees.

Conclusion – The Turning Point in the Peninsular War

The British intervention, combined with Spanish guerrilla warfare and sustained resistance in Cadiz, played a pivotal role in breaking Napoleon’s hold on the Iberian Peninsula. The defeat at Vitoria in 1813 marked the beginning of the end for French rule in Spain, setting the stage for the final expulsion of Napoleonic forces in 1814.

Juntas, established by army commanders, guerrilla leaders, or local civilian groups, appear in areas outside French control from the first days of the War of Independence.

They also exist underground as alternatives to the French-imposed government.

Unity extends only to fighting the French, however.

Coups are frequent, and there is sometimes bloody competition among military, partisan, and civilian groups for control of the juntas.

A central junta sits in Cadiz.

It has little authority, except as surrogate for the absent royal government.

It succeeds, however, in calling together representatives from local juntas in 1810, with the vague notion of creating the Cortes of All the Spains, so called because it would be the single legislative body for the empire and its colonies.

Many of the overseas provinces have by this time already declared their independence.

Some see the Cortes at Cadiz as an interim government until the Desired One, as Ferdinand VII is called by his supporters, can return to the throne.

Many regalists cannot admit that a parliamentary body can legislate in the absence of a king.

The Second French Invasion of Portugal (March–May 1809) and Wellington’s Counteroffensive

In March 1809, Marshal Nicolas Soult led a renewed French invasion of Portugal, advancing from Galicia in the north. This marked Napoleon’s second attempt to subjugate Portugal, following the failed occupation of 1807–1808.

The French Advance – Soult Captures Porto

• Soult’s army crossed into Portugal from Galicia, quickly occupying Chaves.
• The French then advanced toward Porto, Portugal’s second-largest city.
• On March 29, 1809, Soult captured Porto, forcing a chaotic Portuguese retreat across the Douro River.

Wellington Returns – The British-Portuguese Counteroffensive

• In April 1809, Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington) arrived in Portugal to take full command of the British-Portuguese forces.
• Recognizing that Soult’s army was vulnerable, Wellington launched a rapid counteroffensive, forcing the French to retreat northward.
• By May 12, 1809, Wellington executed a brilliant crossing of the Douro River, retaking Porto and sending Soult into full retreat.
• The French, cut off from their supply lines, abandoned much of their artillery and baggage as they fled back into Galicia.

Victory at Talavera and Wellington’s Rise (July 27–28, 1809)

• After driving Soult out of Portugal, Wellington turned his attention to Spanish territory, joining forces with the Spanish army.
• On July 27–28, 1809, the British and Spanish armies defeated Marshal Victor’s French forces at the Battle of Talavera in central Spain.
• Despite suffering heavy casualties, this victory marked Wellington’s first major battlefield success in Spain, solidifying his reputation as the leading Allied general in the Peninsular War.
• In recognition of his achievements, Wellesley was elevated to the rank of Duke of Wellington.

Conclusion – The French Are Driven from Portugal Again

The successful defense of Portugal in 1809 marked a turning point in the Peninsular War:

• Portugal remained secure under British and Portuguese control, despite repeated French invasions.
• The Anglo-Portuguese army was now a disciplined and effective force, ready to support the Spanish resistance.
• Wellington emerged as the dominant Allied commander, setting the stage for future victories against Napoleon’s forces in the Iberian Peninsula.

This campaign reaffirmed Portugal’s resilience and Britain’s commitment to defeating Napoleon in Iberia, leading toward the final liberation of Spain and Portugal in 1813–1814.

 

The delegates at the Cortes at Cadiz form into two main currents, liberal and conservative.

The liberals carry on the reformist philosophy of Charles III and add to it many of the new ideals of the French Revolution.

They want equality before the law, a centralized government, an efficient modern civil service, a reform of the tax system, the replacement of feudal privileges by freedom of contract, and the recognition of the property owner's right to use his property as he sees fit.

As the liberals are the majority, they are able to transform the assembly from interim government to constitutional convention.

The product of the Cortes's deliberations reflects the liberals' dominance, for the constitution of 1812 will come to be the "sacred codex" of liberalism, and during the nineteenth century it will serve as a model for liberal constitutions of Latin nations.

As the principal aim of the new constitution is the prevention of arbitrary and corrupt royal rule, it provides for a limited monarchy that governs through ministers subject to parliamentary control.

Suffrage, determined by property qualifications, favors the position of the commercial class in the new parliament, in which there is no special provision for the church or the nobility.

The constitution sets up a rational and efficient centralized administrative system based on newly formed provinces and municipalities rather than on the historic provinces.

Repeal of traditional property restrictions gives the liberals the freer economy they want.

Military reverses and economic misery cause a popular uprising in March 1808 that forces the dismissal of Godoy and the abdiction of Charles IV.

The king is succeeded by his son, Ferdinand VII (r. 1808; 1814-33).

The French force Ferdinand to abdicate almost immediately, however, and Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, is named king of Spain.

A large French army is moved in to support the new government and to invade Britain's ally, Portugal, from Spanish soil.

The afrancesados, a small but influential group of Spaniards who favor reconstructing their country on the French model, welcome the Bonapartist regime.

The 1812 Constitution marks the initiation of the Spanish tradition of liberalism; by the country's standards, however, it is a revolutionary document, and when Ferdinand VII is restored to the throne in 1814 he refuses to recognize it.

Joseph Bonaparte proclaims the dissolution of religious houses to ingratiate himself with the afrancesados.

The defense of the Roman Catholic Church, which had long been attacked by successive Spanish governments, now becomes the test of Spanish patriotism and the cause around which resistance to the French rallies.

The citizens of Zaragoza hold out against superior French forces for more than a year.

In Asturias, local forces take back control of their province, and an army of Valencians temporarily forces the French out of Madrid.

The Third French Invasion of Portugal (1810–1811) – Masséna’s Defeat and Expulsion

After two failed French invasions, Napoleon ordered a third and final attempt to subdue Portugal in 1810, sending Marshal André Masséna, one of his most experienced commanders, at the head of a powerful army. However, Wellington’s defensive strategy and the Portuguese scorched earth tactics would once again doom the French campaign.

The French Advance into Portugal (1810)

• Masséna's army entered Portugal via Guarda, pushing toward Viseu.
• Finding Wellington's forces holding the main roads, Masséna led his army across the rugged Buçaco Mountains, attempting to outflank the Anglo-Portuguese army.
• On September 27, 1810, at the Battle of Buçaco, Masséna launched a frontal assault, but Wellington’s forces held firm, inflicting heavy casualties.
• Despite this setback, the French continued advancing, capturing Coimbra, which they sacked and plundered.

Wellington’s Strategic Withdrawal to Torres Vedras

Rather than risk a decisive battle in the open, Wellington executed a strategic withdrawal southward, drawing Masséna’s army into a trap.

• Wellington withdrew behind the Lines of Torres Vedras, a massive network of defensive fortificationsprotecting Lisbon.
• These defenses were carefully prepared in advance, creating an impenetrable barrier with fortified positions, artillery placements, and supply depots.

Masséna’s Stalemate at Torres Vedras

Upon reaching Torres Vedras, Masséna realized he could not breach Wellington’s defenses:

• The fortifications were too strong for a direct assault.
• The French army was cut off from its supply lines, running low on food and ammunition.
• Portuguese guerrillas and militia harassed the French rear, further straining their supply situation.

After months of stalemate, Masséna was forced to withdraw, his army weakened and starving.

The French Retreat and Defeat at Sabugal (April 1811)

• As the French army retreated northward, Wellington pursued aggressively, harassing the demoralized enemy.
• At Sabugal (April 3, 1811), Wellington’s forces overtook Masséna, inflicting a decisive defeat.
• Masséna was forced to retreat from Portugal entirely, ending the third and final French invasion.

Conclusion – The Final Failure of Napoleon’s Portugal Campaigns

The Third French Invasion of Portugal had ended in disaster, marking the final failure of Napoleon’s attempts to conquer the country:

• Wellington’s strategic brilliance and the Lines of Torres Vedras proved insurmountable for the French.
• Masséna’s inability to sustain his army in enemy territory mirrored Napoleon’s later failures in Russia (1812).
• Portugal remained free of French control, ensuring that Britain maintained a crucial foothold in Iberia.

This campaign sealed the fate of the Peninsular War, as French forces were now on the defensive, and Wellington prepared to take the fight into Spain, leading to the liberation of Iberia in 1813–1814.