Mediterranean Southwest Europe (652–663 CE): Byzantine Dominance, Papal Struggles, and Lombard Consolidation

The era 652–663 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is characterized by significant ecclesiastical conflicts involving papal authority, continued Byzantine-Lombard tensions in Italy, and the broader geopolitical shifts resulting from early Islamic expansion in the Mediterranean.

Ecclesiastical Conflict and Papal Exile

Pope Martin I (r. 649–655 CE) remains a central figure during the early part of this period, vigorously opposing the Byzantine-backed Monothelite doctrine. This theological dispute leads to escalating tensions between Rome and Constantinople. In 653 CE, Byzantine Emperor Constans II orders Martin’s arrest, leading to his forced exile to the Crimean Peninsula, where he dies in 655. This unprecedented act underscores the limits of papal autonomy under Byzantine influence, significantly impacting papal-imperial relations.

Byzantine Dominance and Continued Intervention

Following Martin's exile, the Byzantine emperors continue asserting considerable control over the papacy and its ecclesiastical administration. Pope Eugene I (r. 654–657 CE), Martin's successor, navigates carefully under Byzantine oversight, maintaining doctrinal orthodoxy while attempting to avoid further imperial confrontation. Pope Vitalian (r. 657–672 CE) succeeds Eugene and similarly manages the delicate balance between maintaining papal authority and placating Byzantine political demands.

Lombard Kingdom: Consolidation and Expansion

Meanwhile, the Lombard Kingdom under kings Aripert I (r. 653–661 CE) and subsequently Perctarit and Godepert (co-rulers from 661 CE) continues to consolidate territorial and political control in northern Italy. Lombard governance, reinforced by earlier legal codifications under King Rothari, stabilizes further during this period, deepening the administrative divide between Lombard-controlled territories and Byzantine enclaves.

Increasing Impact of Islamic Expansion

During this era, Mediterranean Southwest Europe increasingly feels the geopolitical repercussions of Islamic expansion. Although direct territorial incursions into Italy and Iberia remain limited, increased maritime activity by Islamic forces across the Mediterranean heightens regional tensions and foreshadows more significant future conflicts. This emerging external pressure underscores vulnerabilities in Byzantine holdings and reshapes broader geopolitical dynamics.

Ecclesiastical Stability Amid Political Turmoil

Despite ongoing political and military disruptions, ecclesiastical institutions remain critical stabilizing forces. The papacy, although constrained by Byzantine dominance, continues to exert spiritual and doctrinal influence. Ecclesiastical leaders throughout Italy and Iberia reinforce cultural continuity and social cohesion amidst fragmented political landscapes.

Legacy of the Era

The era 652–663 CE significantly shapes the religious and geopolitical fabric of Mediterranean Southwest Europe. The forced exile of Pope Martin I highlights the complex interplay between religious authority and imperial power, while sustained Lombard consolidation in Italy sets enduring foundations for medieval governance structures. Meanwhile, the initial pressures from Islamic expansion introduce new, transformative forces into the region’s historical trajectory

Pope Eugene, who dies at Rome on June 1 after a reign of nearly two and a half years, is succeeded by Vitalian as the seventy-sixth pope.

Like Eugene, Vitalian tries to restore the connection with Constantinople by making friendly advances to Emperor Constans II and to prepare the way for the settlement of the Monothelite controversy.

He sends letters (synodica) announcing his elevation to the Emperor and to Patriarch Peter of Constantinople, who is inclined to Monothelitism.

The Emperor confirms the privileges of the Holy See as head of the Catholic Church and sends to Rome a codex of the Gospels in a cover of gold richly ornamented with precious stones as a goodwill gesture.

Mediterranean Southwest Europe (664–675 CE): Lombard Expansion, Byzantine Resistance, and Regional Shifts

The era 664–675 CE in Mediterranean Southwest Europe is marked by continued Lombard territorial expansion, significant Byzantine resistance to these incursions, and ongoing ecclesiastical and administrative adjustments that shape regional dynamics.

Lombard Expansion into Southern Italy

In this era, the Lombards extend their influence further into southern Italy, notably capturing Taranto, a strategically important coastal city. This conquest underlines the growing strength and ambition of the Lombard duchies in the southern peninsula, particularly the Duchy of Benevento. The expansion of Lombard control into Apulia and surrounding regions significantly challenges remaining Byzantine territories, reshaping the geopolitical balance in southern Italy.

Persistent Byzantine Resistance and Administrative Adaptations

Despite losing Taranto and other inland territories, the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna maintains determined resistance, securing key coastal enclaves and reinforcing strategic urban centers. Byzantine authorities reorganize defenses and diplomatic strategies, aiming to halt further Lombard incursions and preserve the Rome-to-Ravenna corridor, critical for communication and administrative cohesion.

Ecclesiastical Stability and Papal Authority

During this era, the papacy under Pope Vitalian (r. 657–672 CE) and his successor Adeodatus II (r. 672–676 CE) continues efforts to assert spiritual authority and ecclesiastical stability amidst political fragmentation. The papal office provides crucial continuity, guiding doctrinal consistency and fostering cultural resilience, even as secular governance becomes increasingly fragmented.

Regional Geopolitical Shifts and Broader Mediterranean Context

The Lombard capture of Taranto illustrates broader shifts occurring throughout the Mediterranean basin, particularly as early Islamic expansion continues to affect maritime trade and security. Mediterranean Southwest Europe increasingly experiences external pressures that indirectly affect internal dynamics, compelling local rulers and Byzantine officials alike to adapt strategically to maintain their territories and influence.

Legacy of the Era

The era 664–675 CE significantly reshapes southern Italy’s political and territorial landscapes. Lombard territorial gains underscore their sustained regional dominance, while Byzantine efforts to resist further losses demonstrate resilience amid growing challenges. Ecclesiastical institutions remain pivotal, preserving continuity and stability as political and territorial shifts continue to define the transition toward a distinctly medieval European order.

Constans alienates Pope Vitalian in 668 by declaring Ravenna independent.

His plans to make the city a permanent capital and a strategic center for the defense of the West against the Arabs are cut short by his assassination at the baths of Daphne on September 15, thus ending the career of the last of Constantinople’s emperors to venture into the West.

In the absence of the sons of Constans II, the imperial general Mezezius is proclaimed Emperor by the army in Syracuse and reigns in Sicily for a few months.

When the news of the assassination of Constans reached his son Constantine IV in Constantinople, an expedition had been sent to depose and kill Mezezius.

His court is deported in 669 to Constantinople.