Henry I had required the leading barons, ecclesiastics and officials in Normandy and England, to take an oath to accept Matilda (also known as Empress Maud) as his heir.

England is far less than enthusiastic to accept an outsider, and a woman, as their ruler.

There is some evidence suggesting Henry was unsure of his own hopes and the oath to make Matilda his heir.

In likelihood, Henry probably hoped Matilda would have a son and step aside as Queen Mother, making her son the next heir.

Upon Henry’s death, the Norman and English barons ignore Matilda’s claim to the throne, and thus through a series of decisions, Stephen of Blois, Henry’s favorite nephew, is welcomed by many in England and Normandy as their new ruler.

Empress Matilda and Geoffrey's son, Henry, resume the invasion; he is already Count of Anjou, Duke of Normandy and Duke of Aquitaine when he lands in England.

When Stephen's son and heir apparent Eustace dies in 1153, the king reaches an accommodation with Henry of Anjou (who becomes Henry II) to succeed Stephen and in which peace between them is guaranteed.

England is part of a greater union, retrospectively named the Angevin Empire.

Henry destroys the remaining adulterine castles (fortifications built in England without royal approval) and expands his power through various means and to different levels into Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Flanders, Nantes, Brittany, Quercy, Toulouse, Bourges and Auvergne.

Stephen is captured, and his government falls.

Matilda is proclaimed queen but is soon at odds with her subjects and is expelled from London.

The period of insurrection and civil war that follows continues until 1148, when Matilda returns to France.

Stephen effectively reigns unopposed until his death in 1154, although his hold on the throne is still uneasy.

As soon as he regains power, he begins the process of demolishing the adulterine castles, which are hated by the peasants due to their being employed as forced labor to build and maintain them.

Stephen keeps a few castles standing however, which puts him at odds with his heir.

During the confused and contested reign of Stephen, there is a major swing in the balance of power towards the feudal barons, as civil war and lawlessness break out.

In trying to appease Scottish and Welsh raiders, he hands over large tracts of land.

Stephen is anointed king on December 22, 1135, with the implicit support of the church and nation.

Matilda and her own son stand for direct descent by heredity from Henry I, and she bides her time in France.

The following civil war from 1139–1153 is known as the Anarchy.

In the autumn of 1139, she invades England with her illegitimate half-brother Robert of Gloucester.

Her husband, Geoffroy V of Anjou, conquers Normandy but does not cross the channel to help his wife, satisfied with Normandy and Anjou.

During this breakdown of central authority, the nobles run amok building adulterine castles (i.e. castles erected without government permission).

The Failed Imperial-Norman Invasion of France (1124 CE)

In 1124, Emperor Henry V of the Holy Roman Empire and his father-in-law, King Henry I of England and Duke of Normandy, launched an attack on King Louis VI of France. This invasion, composed largely of German forces, sought to weaken Capetian influence and assert imperial and Norman power in France.

However, Louis VI, known as Louis the Fat, proved to be a formidable opponent, successfully rallying the French nobility to resist the invasion.

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Louis VI’s Defense Against the Imperial-Norman Coalition

• Louis VI mobilized a large French army, drawing support from his vassals, the clergy, and powerful nobles across the realm.
• Faced with a unified and determined French resistance, Henry V and Henry I were forced to abandon the campaign, marking a significant victory for the Capetian monarchy.
• The failed invasion reinforced Louis VI’s authority, proving that even the combined forces of the Holy Roman Emperor and the Anglo-Norman king could not easily overcome Capetian defenses.

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Louis VI’s Other Challenges: Conflict with Count Stephen of Blois

Beyond imperial threats, Louis VI also had to contend with powerful regional rivals, including Stephen, Count of Blois, who sought to expand his influence at the expense of the Capetian crown.

• Despite Stephen’s ambitions, Louis successfully maintained his dominance over central France, preventing Blois from significantly weakening royal authority.
• His military campaigns against powerful feudal lords, including those in the Île-de-France, Burgundy, and Aquitaine, helped consolidate the French monarchy, though not without difficulty.

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Louis VI’s Failed Intervention in Flanders (1127)

Three years after his victory over the imperial-Norman invasion, Louis VI attempted to intervene in Flanders, but with less success:

• After the murder of Count Charles the Good in 1127, Flanders descended into a succession crisis.
• Louis backed William Clito, the son of Robert Curthose, as the new count, hoping to strengthen Capetian influence in the region.
• However, local Flemish factions opposed Clito’s rule, and he was eventually defeated and killed in 1128.
• This failed intervention weakened Louis’s standing in Flanders, demonstrating the limits of Capetian power beyond the royal domain.

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Significance of Louis VI’s Reign

Despite setbacks in Flanders, Louis VI’s ability to repel imperial and Anglo-Norman aggression in 1124 cemented his reputation as a strong defender of the French monarchy.

• His successful military leadership helped strengthen the Capetian dynasty against both external threats and internal feudal opposition.
• His reign set the stage for the gradual expansion of royal power, which would continue under his son, Louis VII, and later Philip II (Augustus).

While Capetian France was still weaker than the Anglo-Norman and Holy Roman Empires, Louis VI’s victories and political maneuvers ensured the continued survival and consolidation of the French crown.

Atlantic West Europe (1132–1143): Dynastic Tensions, Economic Expansion, and Cultural Flourishing

Between 1132 and 1143, Atlantic West Europe—which includes the Low Countries, Brittany, Normandy, Aquitaine, Burgundy, central France, Alsace, and Franche-Comté—underwent significant changes marked by dynastic tensions, continued economic expansion, and dynamic cultural developments.

Political and Military Developments

• France: Capetian Consolidation and Baronial Struggles

  • Louis VI (r. 1108–1137) continued to strengthen royal authority but faced persistent opposition from powerful feudal barons.

  • His successor, Louis VII (r. 1137–1180), inherited a stronger monarchy but encountered immediate challenges in maintaining royal dominance.

• Normandy and England: Succession Crisis Intensifies

  • Following Henry I's death (1135), Normandy and England plunged into a succession crisis between Stephen of Blois and Matilda (daughter of Henry I), sparking the protracted conflict known as "The Anarchy."

• Aquitaine: Ducal Authority and Expansion

  • William X (r. 1127–1137) maintained Aquitaine’s cultural prestige and political autonomy.

  • Upon his death, his daughter Eleanor became duchess (r. 1137–1204), significantly altering the political landscape of the region.

• Brittany and Burgundy: Continued Autonomy

  • Brittany under Conan III (r. 1112–1148) preserved its autonomy, navigating diplomatic complexities between Normandy and France.

  • Burgundy, led by Duke Hugh II (r. 1103–1143), remained internally stable and retained local governance structures.

Economic and Social Developments

• Expansion of Trade and Urbanization

  • Major cities like Bruges, Ghent, and Ypres continued flourishing, further integrating into broader European trade networks, especially textiles and wool trade.

  • The Champagne fairs grew increasingly influential as international commercial hubs, facilitating exchange between northern and southern Europe.

• Agricultural Advances and Population Growth

  • Agricultural productivity increased due to improved farming techniques, supporting sustained population growth and greater urbanization.

Cultural and Intellectual Developments

• Flourishing Scholasticism

  • Scholasticism thrived, especially at the University of Paris, attracting scholars such as Peter Abelard, whose philosophical and theological works gained widespread attention.

• Literary and Troubadour Traditions

  • Eleanor of Aquitaine's accession reinforced Aquitaine's cultural prominence, fostering troubadour poetry and music, significantly influencing European literature and courtly culture.

Religious Developments

• Monastic Growth and Influence

  • The expansion of the Cistercian order continued rapidly, with Clairvaux Abbey under Bernard of Clairvaux becoming particularly influential in religious and political affairs.

  • Monasteries remained crucial economic and cultural centers, promoting reform and spiritual renewal.

Legacy and Significance

The period from 1132 to 1143 saw intensified dynastic struggles, notably the English-Norman succession crisis, alongside ongoing economic prosperity and cultural dynamism. These developments significantly influenced the region’s political landscape, shaping Atlantic West Europe's trajectory into the High Middle Ages.

Northwest Europe (1132–1143 CE): Succession Conflicts and Consolidation

England: Prelude to Anarchy

Following King Henry I’s death in 1135, England descended rapidly into political chaos. Despite the prior acknowledgment of Matilda as heir, Henry’s nephew, Stephen of Blois, swiftly seized the throne, supported by many English barons and bishops wary of female rulership. Stephen's ascension ignited a prolonged civil conflict known as The Anarchy (1135–1153), also called The Nineteen Year Winter, a period marked by weakened royal authority, widespread warfare, and fortified castles controlled by rival nobles. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle famously described this era as the time during which "Christ and his saints slept."

Scotland: Strengthening Monarchy and Feudal Structures

Under the continued rule of David I (r. 1124–1153), Scotland experienced further institutional reforms. David’s reign advanced feudalism and administrative centralization, notably through the expansion of sheriffdoms and royal burghs, enhancing trade and urban growth. His political influence extended into Northern England, leveraging the instability caused by the English civil war. David's support for Matilda and subsequent invasions into Northern England significantly shaped cross-border relations during this tumultuous period.

Ireland: Continued Fragmentation and Emerging Influence

Ireland remained politically divided, but the influence of Norman practices began permeating through trade and occasional political alliances. The Norse-Gaelic urban centers—Dublin, Limerick, and Waterford—continued thriving as pivotal points for commerce, cultural interchange, and intermittent military conflict. Despite their economic strength, internal divisions among Irish kingdoms persisted, hindering unified governance.

Denmark: Succession Crisis and Civil War

Denmark plunged into crisis following the death of King Niels (r. 1104–1134), who was killed in 1134 during a civil war against his nephew, Eric II Emune. Eric II ascended to the throne but faced continual internal strife until his assassination in 1137. These upheavals plunged Denmark into instability, marked by frequent battles for royal power and fragmented aristocratic loyalties.

Norway: Escalating Civil Strife

The civil wars initiated by the death of Sigurd I Jorsalfar intensified throughout this era. Norway experienced frequent and violent conflicts between rival claimants and their supporters. The Battle of Holmengrå (1139), fought between the factions of Harald Gille and Magnus IV, typified the period’s instability, with constant shifts in power and the further weakening of centralized authority.

Iceland and the North Atlantic: Cultural Resilience

Iceland continued to maintain political stability through the Althing, preserving traditional governance despite increasing European influences. Icelandic literature, notably sagas and skaldic poetry, thrived during this period, documenting the region's rich history and cultural identity. The North Atlantic settlements remained vibrant yet isolated, largely insulated from the continental conflicts.

Religious Expansion and Cultural Exchange

Throughout Northwest Europe, monastic orders such as the Cistercians expanded significantly, establishing influential abbeys that reinforced ecclesiastical authority and cultural exchange. Scotland, under David I, witnessed extensive monastic foundation-building, reinforcing its integration into broader European religious networks.

Legacy of the Era

By 1143 CE, Northwest Europe had become deeply embroiled in succession-driven conflicts, notably England's protracted Anarchy, Denmark’s internal discord, and Norway’s persistent civil warfare. Contrastingly, Scotland continued its path toward centralization and institutional reform under David I, while Ireland maintained fragmented but economically vibrant regional kingdoms. Iceland and its North Atlantic counterparts preserved their distinctive cultural continuity, highlighting the complex dynamics and enduring resilience characteristic of this transformative period.

The first abbey at Buckfast had been founded as a Benedictine monastery in 1018, believed to have been founded by either Aethelweard (Aylward), Earldorman of Devon, or King Cnut.

This first monastery was "was small and unprosperous", and it is unknown where exactly is was located.

The abbey is established in its current position in 1134 or 1136; King Stephen having granted Buckfast to the French Abbot of Savigny.

This second abbey is home to Savignac monks.

The Fragile Alliance Between Henry I, Matilda, and Geoffrey Plantagenet (1127–1135 CE)

The marriage between Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, and Geoffrey Plantagenet, eldest son of Fulk V of Anjou, was designed to secure a lasting alliance between the Norman and Angevin houses. However, this union proved to be fraught with political tension, personal conflict, and strategic uncertainty, particularly in the final years of Henry I’s reign.

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The Marriage and Its Political Uncertainty (1127–1129)

• Matilda and Geoffrey had been betrothed in 1127 and married in 1128, though it remained unclear what role Geoffrey was meant to play in Normandy and England.
• Henry I did not explicitly grant Geoffrey a formal claim to either England or Normandy, likely to prevent him from attempting to seize power prematurely.
• As part of Matilda’s dowry, she received several castles in Normandy, but the timeline for their transfer was left deliberately vague, causing early tensions.
• When Fulk V left for Jerusalem in 1129, he formally declared Geoffrey as Count of Anjou and Maine, consolidating Geoffrey’s Angevin authority while leaving the question of Normandy unresolved.

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Marital Struggles and Political Tensions (1129–1134)

• Matilda and Geoffrey’s marriage quickly became troubled, largely due to:
  • Their personal dislike for one another, as Matilda resented Geoffrey’s lower rank, preferring her title of Empress (from her previous marriage to Emperor Henry V) over that of Countess.
  • Disputes over control of the dowry castles, leading Matilda to return to Normandy in 1129, effectively separating from Geoffrey.
• Henry I blamed Geoffrey for the separation, but in 1131, efforts were made to reconcile the couple.
• The reconciliation proved successful when Matilda gave birth to two sons:
  • Henry Plantagenet (later Henry II of England) in 1133.
  • Geoffrey Plantagenet in 1134.
• Henry I was pleased and relieved by the birth of male heirs, securing the dynastic continuity of his bloodline.

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The Final Conflict: Power Struggles in Henry I’s Last Years (1135)

As Henry I approached the end of his reign, tensions between him, Matilda, and Geoffrey grew increasingly strained:

• Matilda and Geoffrey feared a lack of genuine support in England from the Anglo-Norman nobility, despite Henry’s earlier insistence that they swear fealty to Matilda.
• In 1135, the couple demanded that Henry hand over control of his Norman castles immediately, arguing that it would strengthen their position when he died.
• Henry angrily refused, likely fearing that Geoffrey would attempt to seize power in Normandy prematurely, triggering a succession crisis before his death.
• This dispute escalated into a fresh rebellion among the Norman barons, led by William, Count of Ponthieu.
• Geoffrey and Matilda intervened in support of the rebels, further damaging their relationship with Henry.

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The Coming Succession Crisis

• Henry’s refusal to grant Matilda and Geoffrey immediate power and the ongoing baronial unrest in Normandy left his succession vulnerable.
• When Henry I died in December 1135, Matilda and Geoffrey were not in England, giving Stephen of Blois, Henry’s nephew, the opportunity to seize the throne—sparking the brutal civil war known as The Anarchy (1135–1153).

Despite Henry I’s attempts to control the succession, the unresolved tensions between Matilda, Geoffrey, and the Anglo-Norman barons ensured that his death would lead to a prolonged struggle for the English crown.

Roger of Salisbury, originally priest of a small chapel near Caen in Normandy, was called "Roger, priest of church of Avranches" in his notification of election to the bishopric.

Although he is uneducated, Roger had shown great talent for business.

On coming to the throne, Henry almost immediately made him Chancellor in 1101.

He, and office he had held until late 1102.

Roger had received the bishopric of Salisbury at Old Sarum Cathedral on September 29, 1102, but had not been consecrated until August 11, 1107, owing to the dispute between Henry and Archbishop Anselm.

He was consecrated at Canterbury.

In the Investitures controversy, he had skillfully managed to keep the favor of both the king and Anselm.

Roger has devoted himself to administrative business, and remodeled it completely.

He has created the exchequer system, which will be managed by him and his family for more than a century, and he has used his position to heap up power and riches.

He has become the first man in England after the King, and is in office, if not in title, justiciar, though he is never called Justiciar during Henry's reign.

Roger has ruled England while Henry was in Normandy, and had succeeded in obtaining the see of Canterbury for his nominee, William de Corbeil.

Duke Robert seems to have been put into his custody after Tinchebry.

Though Roger has sworn allegiance to Matilda, he dislikes the Angevin connection, and in 1135 goes over to Stephen, carrying with him the royal treasure and administrative system upon Stephen's accession.

Stephen places great reliance on him, on his nephews, the bishops of Ely and Lincoln, and on his son Roger le Poer, who is treasurer.