The Near and Middle East (1684 – 1827 CE)

Empires in Decline, Pilgrimage Routes in Turmoil, and the Return of Reforming Powers

Geography & Environmental Context

The Near and Middle East spanned the eastern Mediterranean, the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Persia, and the Caucasus—a crossroads from the Nile to the Hindu Kush. Its three interlocking subregions—the Near East(Egypt, Hejaz, Yemen, Levant, Sudan, southwestern Turkey, and Cyprus), the Middle East (Iraq, Iran, Syria, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, eastern Arabia, and most of Anatolia), and Southeast Arabia (southern Oman, eastern Yemen, and Socotra)—together formed a vast zone of deserts, deltas, plateaus, and pilgrimage corridors. Major anchors included the Nile, Tigris–Euphrates, and Zagros–Caucasus uplands; the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Arabian Seacoasts; and the high valleys of Yemen and Oman that bridged Africa and Asia.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The late Little Ice Age imposed alternating drought and flood.

• Mesopotamia and Iran endured erratic rains and destructive river floods.

• Egypt oscillated between low- and high-Nile years; plague and famine shadowed poor floods.

• Hejaz and Yemen suffered water scarcity punctuated by torrential storms.

• Caucasus winters grew harsher; earthquakes at Tabriz (1721), Shiraz (1824), and along the Levantine Riftreshaped towns.

• Dhofar and Hadhramawt relied on fickle khareef monsoons, while Socotra was struck by periodic cyclones.

Despite volatility, canal maintenance, terrace farming, and nomadic mobility preserved regional resilience.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Mesopotamia & Iran: Irrigated grains, dates, and silk; qanats and canals remained vital to subsistence and taxation.

• Caucasus & Anatolia: Pastoralism and mountain farming—wine, fruit, and grain—supported caravan towns like Tiflis, Yerevan, and Aleppo.

• Levant & Egypt: Terrace agriculture (olives, vines, citrus) complemented Nile wheat, barley, and sugar.

• Arabian littoral: Date groves, pearling, and fishing from Basra to Muscat linked desert to sea.

• Yemen & Oman: Terraced grains, coffee, and frankincense; mixed herding in uplands.

• Sudan: Millet and sorghum in river belts tied to Egypt’s provisioning system after Muḥammad ʿAlī’s conquest (1820–1821).

Urban centers—Cairo, Baghdad, Isfahan, Damascus, Tehran, Muscat, Sanaʿa, and Tiflis—functioned as nodes of governance, trade, and craft.

Technology & Material Culture

• Agrarian infrastructure: Qanats, canals, and dikes remained the hydraulic spine; terrace systems in Yemen and Palestine embodied millennia of continuity.

• Crafts & manufactures: Persian silks and carpets; Aleppine cottons; Damascene soap; Cairene brassware; Georgian and Armenian metallurgy.

• Architecture: Ottoman domes, Safavid and Qajar mosques, Armenian churches, and Yemeni tower-houses defined skylines.

• Maritime innovation: Omani dhows and Red Sea sambuks maintained oceanic trade; firearms and artillery modernized gradually through Ottoman and Persian reforms.

• Printing & learning: The French expedition to Egypt (1798–1801) introduced presses and surveying; by the 1820s Muḥammad ʿAlī’s workshops were producing cotton gins, arms, and canal plans.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Caravan arteries: Aleppo–Mosul–Baghdad; Isfahan–Tabriz–Yerevan–Baku; Basra–Shiraz–Hormuz–Muscat.

• Pilgrimage routes: Cairo and Damascus caravans converged on Mecca until disrupted by Wahhabi–Saʿūdī control (1803–1812); Egyptian forces restored Ottoman sovereignty (1811–1818).

• Maritime spheres: Omani fleets projected power across the Indian Ocean to Zanzibar; Hadhrami merchants spread to Gujarat, Southeast Asia, and the Swahili coast.

• Caspian & Black Sea fronts: Russian expansion brought forts and commerce, drawing Persia into treaties (Gulistan 1813, Turkmenchay 1828).

• Nile & Sudan corridors: River convoys moved grain and troops; Khartoum and Sennar became extensions of Cairo’s fiscal reach.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Ottoman provinces: Sunni institutions, Sufi lodges, and urban guilds organized civic life; Coptic, Armenian, Greek, and Jewish communities sustained schools and trade.

• Persia: Shiʿism remained the ideological core from Safavid through Qajar eras; Isfahan and Tehran mosques, gardens, and miniatures embodied Persian identity.

• Caucasus: Islamic and Christian traditions coexisted; oral epics preserved frontier memory.

• Arabian coasts: Poetry, pearling songs, and mosque schools reflected maritime Islam.

• Hejaz & Yemen: Pilgrimage festivals, Sufi orders, and coffee rituals intertwined devotion and commerce.

• Egypt: Al-Azhar scholars debated governance; after 1798, the Arabic press and translation offices of Muḥammad ʿAlī inaugurated modern intellectual life.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Nomadic transhumance adjusted to drought belts from Arabia to Iran.

• Oasis and terrace restoration maintained food security.

• Maritime adaptation: Oman’s sea routes and Gulf pearling offset inland disruption.

• Pilgrim provisioning: Waqf-funded cisterns, markets, and bakeries sustained caravans.

• Irrigation renewal: In Egypt, canal repair and proto-barrage planning sought to stabilize Nile floods and expand cotton cultivation.

Political & Military Shocks

• Safavid collapse (1722): Afghan incursions toppled Isfahan; Ottoman and Russian invasions followed.

• Nader Shah (1736–1747): Restored Persian power, campaigned in India and the Caucasus.

• Qajar consolidation (1794–1827): Centralized Iran but ceded territory to Russia.

• Ottoman strain: Frontier wars with Russia; Wahhabi revolt in Arabia; provincial autonomy in Syria and Egypt.

• Muḥammad ʿAlī’s rise (1805): Eliminated Mamluks (1811), reformed army and monopolies, annexed Sudan (1820–1821).

• Omani revival: The Al Bu Saʿid dynasty (from 1749) rebuilt fleets, expelled Portuguese remnants, and dominated Gulf trade.

• European encroachment: Consuls, treaties, and naval patrols—French in the Levant, British in the Gulf and Red Sea—tightened economic dependence though not yet direct rule.

Transition

Between 1684 and 1827 CE, the Near and Middle East transformed from a network of venerable Islamic empires into a patchwork of reforming provinces and maritime powers under growing Eurasian pressure. The Safavids vanished, the Qajars struggled with Russia, and the Ottomans faced internal revolt and European diplomacy. Oman extended Arab reach to East Africa, while Muḥammad ʿAlī’s Egypt pioneered modern bureaucratic reform.
By 1827, caravan and monsoon still ordered daily life, yet behind their continuity loomed the industrial powers of Europe—ready to recast these crossroads into the geopolitical heart of the nineteenth-century world.

The Middle East (1684–1827 CE): Ottoman Decline, Safavid Collapse, and the Rise of New Powers

Geography & Environmental Context

The Middle East includes Iraq, Iran, Syria, Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Qatar, Bahrain, the United Arab Emirates, most of Turkey (except the European part and southwest Anatolia), eastern Jordan, all but southernmost Lebanon, eastern Saudi Arabia, and northern Oman. Anchors include the Tigris–Euphrates basin (Mesopotamia), the Zagros and Caucasus ranges, the Iranian Plateau, the Caspian littoral, the Syrian Desert, and the Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea coasts. This geography spans irrigated river valleys, steppe corridors, semi-arid plateaus, and mountain enclaves linking Anatolia, Persia, and Arabia.

Climate & Environmental Shifts

The period fell within the late Little Ice Age, producing cooler winters in Anatolia, Armenia, and the Caucasus, alongside recurrent droughts in Mesopotamia and Iran. Floods along the Tigris and Euphrates periodically devastated farmlands, while earthquakes struck Tabriz (1721) and Shiraz (1824). Pastoral nomads in Arabia, Iran, and the Caucasus moved widely to buffer drought, while irrigation in Mesopotamia and northern Iran faltered under war and neglect but revived when political stability returned.

Subsistence & Settlement

• Mesopotamia: Date groves, rice paddies, and cereal fields along the Tigris–Euphrates remained staples; tribal confederations dominated countryside around Ottoman Baghdad.

• Iranian Plateau: Dryland farming (wheat, barley) and oasis gardening (fruit, melons) sustained populations; silk in Gilan and rice in Mazandaran anchored Caspian subsistence.

• Caucasus (Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan): Pastoralism, viticulture, and orchards flourished in upland valleys; caravan towns like Tiflis and Yerevan mediated exchange.

• Anatolia & Syria: Grain, olives, and vines in uplands; Aleppo and Damascus remained provisioning and craft centers despite periodic crises.

• Persian Gulf & Oman: Fishing, date cultivation, and pearling dominated, with maritime trade sustaining settlements from Basra to Muscat.

Technology & Material Culture

Agriculture relied on qanats, canals, and animal-powered irrigation. Fortresses and caravanserais dotted plateau routes; mosques, madrasas, and Armenian and Georgian churches anchored towns. Persian silk textiles, Azerbaijani carpets, and Aleppine cottons were prized. Gunpowder weapons, artillery, and fortress improvements spread, though unevenly. Maritime craft ranged from Ottoman galleys to Omani dhows controlling Indian Ocean lanes.

Movement & Interaction Corridors

• Caravan routes: Linked Aleppo to Mosul and Baghdad; Isfahan to Tabriz, Yerevan, and Baku; Basra to the Gulf; Shiraz and Yazd to Hormuz/Muscat.

• Persian Gulf: Omani seafaring extended across the Arabian Sea; Basra exported dates and grain; pearl fisheries tied Bahrain and Qatar to Indian and European markets.

• Caspian trade: Connected Gilan’s silk and Astrakhan’s markets; Russian expansion brought new garrisons and merchants.

• Imperial contest zones: Anatolia and the Caucasus saw repeated wars; Iraq oscillated between Ottoman and Persian control.

Cultural & Symbolic Expressions

• Ottoman provinces: Islam anchored society through mosques, Sufi lodges, and guilds; Armenian and Syriac Christians maintained schools and churches; Jewish communities thrived in Aleppo and Baghdad.

• Safavid Iran: Shi‘ism remained state religion; Isfahan’s mosques and gardens expressed grandeur, though after the Safavid collapse, Qajar art and architecture reshaped Persian identity.

• Caucasus: Christian Orthodoxy (Georgian, Armenian) coexisted with Islam; mountain oral epics and shrine pilgrimages preserved memory.

• Arabian littoral: Tribal poetry, pearl-diver songs, and Omani mosque schools expressed maritime identity.

Environmental Adaptation & Resilience

• Nomadic strategies: Tribal migrations across steppe and desert balanced drought and grazing.

• Oasis and qanat systems: Managed water for cereals and orchards; local repair after war was critical.

• Silk, carpet, and date economies: Offered export resilience when crops failed.

• Maritime trade: Oman and Gulf ports buffered against inland disruption by maintaining Indian Ocean routes.

Transition

Between 1684 and 1827, the Middle East was a contested imperial borderland. The Safavid dynasty collapsed (1722); Afghans, Ottomans, and Russians fought over Iran and the Caucasus. Nader Shah briefly restored Persian power (1736–1747), raiding into India and the Caucasus. The Qajar dynasty (from 1794) consolidated Iran but conceded land to Russia in treaties (Gulistan 1813, Turkmenchay 1828). The Ottoman Empire faced Russian expansion in the Black Sea and Caucasus and Wahhabi revolts in Arabia. Oman emerged as a naval power, dominating the Gulf and East Africa. By 1827, the region was still a mosaic of caravans, mosques, and fortified towns, but the balance of power had tilted toward European and Russian pressures—foreshadowing the 19th-century age of colonial rivalry and reform.

The Middle East (1816–1827): Revival of the Al Saud and British Consolidation in the Gulf

Egyptian Intervention and the Fall of the First Saudi State

The modern history of the Arabian Peninsula is often divided into periods reflecting the fortunes of the Al Saud family. The first period began in 1744 with the alliance between Muhammad ibn Saud and the reformist religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, culminating in the establishment of the first Saudi-Wahhabi state. However, by 1818, Egyptian forces under Ibrahim Pasha, son of Egypt’s powerful ruler Muhammad Ali, dramatically altered the political landscape.

After capturing Ad Diriyah, the Saudi capital, Egyptian troops razed its walls, leveled buildings, and destroyed palm groves to ensure the city could no longer sustain life or resist reoccupation. Abdullah ibn Saud, the last ruler of the first Saudi state, was captured, sent to Istanbul, and publicly executed, signifying the apparent end of the Al Saud’s rule.

Revival of Al Saud Authority under Turki ibn Abdullah

Despite these catastrophic setbacks, the Al Saud lineage endured. Turki ibn Abdullah, a cousin and loyal commander who escaped the destruction of Ad Diriyah, became the pivotal figure in restoring Saudi authority. Having evaded capture by hiding among loyal tribesmen, he recaptured the ruins of Ad Diriyah in 1821, and then swiftly moved his base of operations to Riyadh, establishing it as the new center of power.

By 1824, Turki ibn Abdullah had reasserted Al Saud and Wahhabi rule over most of Najd, confirming the resilience and deep-rooted appeal of the Al Saud-Wahhabi alliance. This swift restoration of power underscored how firmly Wahhabi religious and political legitimacy had taken hold among the tribes of central Arabia.

Consolidation of Al Saud Influence in Central Arabia

From Riyadh, Turki ibn Abdullah extended his authority across a vast area of central Arabia. His rule combined direct control and strategic alliances, maintaining influence northward into Jabal Shammar through close ties with the influential Rashidi clan. Turki’s son, Faisal, later solidified this relationship through marriage, linking the two prominent families.

In eastern Arabia and along the Persian Gulf coast, Turki preferred to govern indirectly, appointing loyal local leaders who acknowledged Al Saud supremacy. Elsewhere, he secured agreements with tribes, extracting tribute and securing promises of neutrality or support, thus creating a complex but effective web of allegiance.

Religious Authority and Tribute Collection

Crucially, Turki’s reign was underpinned by Wahhabi religious authority. Al Saud leaders following the death of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in 1792 had assumed the title of Imam, signifying combined religious and political leadership. This added dimension of legitimacy allowed them to mobilize tribes for military campaigns, often described as jihad. Tributes and taxes collected under their rule conformed to Islamic sharia principles, further embedding the regime’s religious legitimacy within its political structure.

British Intervention and the Emergence of the Trucial System in the Gulf

In the Persian Gulf region, escalating maritime conflict compelled Britain to intervene decisively. Persistent piracy by the Qawasim (Al Qasimi) tribes, particularly from strongholds in what is now the United Arab Emirates, posed a severe threat to British commercial and naval interests. By 1820, Britain responded forcefully, destroying key pirate bases such as Ras al-Khaimah, and compelling local rulers to sign treaties forbidding piracy and warfare at sea. These agreements initiated the “Trucial System,” which eventually evolved into the modern states of the UAE.

Omani Sultanate under Said ibn Sultan

Simultaneously, Oman under Said ibn Sultan Al Sa'id navigated complex challenges. Although Europeans often called Said “Imam,” he himself preferred the secular title of Sayyid, distancing himself from traditional Ibadi religious leadership. His reign saw ongoing tribal divisions, British pressure to halt the slave trade, and encroachments by Wahhabi forces from central Arabia. In response to British demands, Said signed a treaty in 1822, pledging not to sell slaves to subjects of Christian powers. Though Said’s power over Oman proper weakened after 1820, his maritime state expanded economically through trade in coffee, slaves, dates, and pearls, firmly embedding Oman within the global commercial network.

Legacy of the Era (1816–1827)

The period from 1816 to 1827 established several lasting legacies:

• The resilient Al Saud, despite Egypt’s devastating military interventions, demonstrated their enduring power and legitimacy by reasserting Wahhabi rule from their new stronghold in Riyadh.

• Britain’s decisive naval interventions along the Persian Gulf initiated a series of treaties, laying the foundations for the Trucial States and setting the stage for long-term British influence in the region.

• Omani maritime trade, consolidated under Said ibn Sultan, connected the Gulf and East Africa more deeply into the global economy, albeit accompanied by European pressures to curtail the slave trade.

Thus, the era from 1816 to 1827 was marked by political revival, foreign intervention, and shifting alliances, setting patterns of governance and external influence that shaped the Middle Eastern geopolitical landscape into the modern era.

The Middle East: 1816–1827 CE

Defeat and Reorganization of the Saudi-Wahhabi State

The Ottoman-Saudi War, initiated by Muhammad Ali Pasha, governor of Egypt, achieves significant successes. By 1818, Muhammad Ali's forces, led by his son Ibrahim Pasha, decisively capture the Saudi capital of Ad Diriyah, effectively crushing the First Saudi State. Abdullah ibn Saud, the Saudi leader, is captured and later executed in Constantinople, marking a decisive Ottoman victory. Although the Saudi political structure collapses, Wahhabi religious doctrines persist throughout the Arabian Peninsula, maintaining influence among local tribes and providing the ideological foundation for future Saudi resurgence.

Following the fall of Ad Diriyah, Muhammad Ali restores the authority of the ashraf, traditional rulers in Mecca since the tenth century. To consolidate Egyptian authority, garrisons are placed strategically across the peninsula, including at the important port of Al Qatif on the Persian Gulf and along the Red Sea coast.

Despite these setbacks, Turki ibn Abd Allah, an uncle of former ruler Saud, escapes Egyptian capture and, after hiding among loyalists, recaptures Ad Diriyah in 1821. He subsequently establishes the new Al Saud base in Riyadh by 1824. The swift reestablishment of control demonstrates the lasting influence and appeal of Wahhabi doctrine. After the death of Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab in 1792, Al Saud leaders adopt the title of imam, granting them both political and religious authority, significantly strengthening their legitimacy and influence in central Arabia.

Qajar Dynasty: Continued Pressure and Territorial Losses

Under Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, Persia endures further setbacks following renewed conflict with Russia. The Russo-Persian War (1826–1828), initiated by Persia in an attempt to regain territories lost under the Treaty of Gulistan, ends disastrously for the Qajars. Despite initial victories, Persian forces are decisively defeated, culminating in the later Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), which imposes severe territorial losses and heavy financial indemnities. This period exacerbates internal pressures on the Qajar Dynasty, highlighting its military and administrative weaknesses.

British Dominance and Maritime Stability in Oman

Said bin Sultan al-Busaidi continues to solidify his rule in Oman, enhancing economic stability through increased cooperation with British maritime power. His reign faces challenges from family and tribal disputes, growing Anglo-French rivalry in the Indian Ocean, the expansion of the Al Saud-Wahhabi movement, and persistent piracy from the Qawasim tribes, resulting in the area being labeled the “Pirate Coast.” To protect shipping, Great Britain initiates treaties with regional leaders starting in 1820, effectively outlawing sea battles and significantly reducing piracy.

By 1820, Oman loses control over parts of the southern Persian Gulf coast, effectively cutting off direct gulf access. Nonetheless, Said bin Sultan develops a modest military and naval fleet, supporting mercantile interests. Coastal Arabia becomes increasingly integrated into the global economy through the trade of coffee, slaves, pearls, and dates, along with pilgrimage routes to Mecca. Although pressured by Britain to suppress the slave trade, Said bin Sultan acknowledges the difficulty, signing an agreement in 1822 that forbids selling slaves to Christian subjects.

Tribal Dynamics and Power Shifts in the Persian Gulf

The departure of the Al Khalifa to Bahrain and the economic decline of Az Zubarah leave a power vacuum in Qatar, allowing the Al Thani clan to further consolidate their power and influence. The Al Jalahma remain significant players in maritime activities from their base at Al Khuwayr, although the severity of their piracy declines significantly following increased British naval patrols.

In Abu Dhabi, the Al bu Falah continue strengthening their position, bolstered by close ties with Oman and British authorities. This enhances Abu Dhabi's economic and political importance, particularly regarding maritime security and regional trade.

Muhammad Ali's Growing Autonomy and Regional Influence

Muhammad Ali Pasha further consolidates his political autonomy from the weakened Ottoman central authority. Following his successful campaign against the Saudi state, he embarks on extensive modernization programs in Egypt, strengthening military, agricultural, and industrial capabilities. This significantly elevates Egypt's regional status, laying the groundwork for future independent actions against Ottoman interests and expanding his political influence into neighboring territories.

Legacy of the Era

Between 1816 and 1827, major geopolitical shifts redefine the Middle East. The collapse of the Saudi-Wahhabi state temporarily stabilizes Ottoman authority in Arabia, although Wahhabi influence endures and quickly reasserts itself under new leadership in Riyadh. Persian territorial losses underscore the vulnerability of the Qajar Dynasty, while British maritime interventions decisively curb regional piracy and enhance trade stability. Muhammad Ali's increased autonomy signals a profound shift in Ottoman-Egyptian dynamics, setting the stage for significant transformations across the broader Middle East.

Turki proceeds from the ruins of Ad Diriyah to Riyadh, another Najdi city, which eventually becomes the new Al Saud base.

Forces under Turki's control reclaim the rest of Najd in 1824.

Turki's relatively swift retaking of Najd shows the extent to which the Al Saud-Wahhabi authority has been established in the area over the previous fifty years.

The successes of the Wahhabi forces had done much to promote tribal loyalty to the Al Saud, but the Wahhabi principles of the Al Saud rule are equally compelling.

After Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab's death in 1792, the Al Saud leader had assumed the title of imam.

Thus, Al Saud leaders are recognized not just as shaykhs or leaders, but as Wahhabi imams, political and religious figures whose rule has an element of religious authority.

Turki and his successors rule from Riyadh over a wide area.

They control the region to the north and south of Najd and exert considerable influence along the western coast of the Persian Gulf.

This area is no state but a large sphere of influence that the Al Saud hold together with a combination of treaties and delegated authority.

In the Jabal Shammar to the north, for instance, the Al Saud support the rule of Abd Allah ibn Rashid, with whom Turki maintains a close alliance.

Later, Turki's son Faisal will cement this alliance by marrying his son, Talal, to Abd Allah's daughter, Nura.

Although this family-to-family connection works well, the Al Saud prefer to rely in the east on appointed leaders to rule on their behalf.

In other areas, they are content to establish treaties under the terms of which tribes agree to defend the family's interests or to refrain from attacking the Al Saud when the opportunity arises.

The Al Saud, within their sphere of influence, can levy troops for military campaigns from the towns and tribes under their control.

Although these campaigns are mostly police actions against recalcitrant tribes, the rulers describe them as holy wars (jihad), which they conduct according to religious principles.

The tribute that the Al Saud demand from those under their control also is based on Islamic principles.

Towns, for instance, pay taxes at a rate established by Muslim law, and the troops that accompany the Al Saud on raiding expeditions return one-fifth of their booty to the Al Saud treasury according to sharia (Muslim law) requirements.

The collection of tribute is another indication of the extensive influence the Al Saud derive because of their Wahhabi connections.

Muhammad Ali restores the authority of the ashraf (sing., sharif) who had ruled the Hijaz from Mecca since the tenth century.

However, Turki ibn Abd Allah, the uncle of one of the penultimate rulers (Saud), upsets Egyptian efforts to exercise authority in the area.

Turki had fought at Ad Diriyah but managed to escape the Egyptians when the town fell in 1818.

He had hidden for two years among loyal forces to the south and, after a few unsuccessful attempts, recaptures Ad Diriyah in 1821.

Wahhabi religious ideas have spread through the central part of the Arabian Peninsula; as a result, the Al Saud influence decisions even in areas not under their control, such as succession battles and questions of tribute.

Their influence in the Hijaz, however, remains restricted.

Not only are the Egyptians and Ottomans careful that the region not slip away again, but Wahhabi ideas have not found a receptive audience in western Arabia.

Accordingly, the family is unable to gain a foothold in the Hijaz during the nineteenth century.

Ibrahim Pasha, another of Muhammad 'Ali's sons, now commands the Egyptian forces.

He enlists the support of the volatile tribes by skillful diplomacy and lavish gifts, then advances into central Arabia, joined by most of the principal tribes.

He invests the provincial capital of ad-Dir'iyah from April 1818 until the surrender, on September 9, of Abdullah, who is sent to Istanbul and beheaded.

Local Wahhabi leaders are put to death, Egyptian garrisons are posted to the principal towns, and Ad-Dir'iyah is razed to the ground as a lesson to the remaining Sa'udi family members, who had suffered heavy losses during the fighting.

A few had managed to escape before the surrender; the rest are sent to Egypt for detention along with those descendants of Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab who did not escape to Riyadh.

Those in Egyptian custody include Khalid, son of Sa'ud and brother of 'Abd Allah, and Faysal, a great grandson of Muhammad ibn Sa'ud.