Muslim Civil War of 945-48
945 CE to 948 CE
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The Middle East: 940–951 CE
Linguistic Transformations and Cultural Shifts
Between 940 and 951 CE, the Middle East experiences a significant linguistic transformation as the flexible word order typical of Middle Iranian languages gradually evolves into the more structured and rigid syntax characteristic of Modern Iranian languages. This linguistic shift underscores broader cultural changes across the Iranian-speaking regions.
Such a linguistic transition reflects deeper cultural realignments and adaptations, influenced by ongoing interactions with neighboring Arab, Turkic, and Kurdish communities. As languages stabilize and diversify, they simultaneously reinforce ethnic identities and facilitate clearer administrative, literary, and scholarly communications.
The crystallization of these modern linguistic structures during this era sets the stage for subsequent literary and intellectual flowering, profoundly influencing regional identity and cultural development for generations to come.
The founders of the Būyid confederation are ‘Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and Aḥmad, who are the sons of Buya, a fisherman from Lahijan in Tabaristan.
Originally a soldier in the service of the Ziyārīds of Ṭabaristān, ‘Alī had been able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from Baghdad named Yaqut in 934.
Over the past nine years, the three brothers have gained control of the remainder of the 'Abbāsid Caliphate.
The Caliph receive the secretary of Buyid chief to make terms of peace, which the Caliph accepts.
Thus invited, Ahmad enters Baghdad, and under the title of Amir al-Umara (Amir of Amirs) assumes the supreme command, demanding of al-Mustakfi that the Buyids be recognized as the sole rulers of the territory they control.
The Caliph makes abject submission to the Amir, whose name, in addition to al-Mustakfi's, is now by his command stamped upon the coinage, and recited in the public prayers; but it is all in vain.
Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani is a noted grammarian, wrote much poetry, compiled astronomical tables, and devoted most of his life to the study of the ancient history and geography of Arabia.
His biography is scanty, despite his extensive scientific work.
Al-Hamdani’s family originally lived in al-Marashi, later moving to Sanaa' before 893, the year in which he was born.
His father, a traveler, had been to Kufa, Baghdad, Basra, Oman and Egypt.
Al-Hamdānī eventually left for Mecca, studying there for more than six years.
He then left for Sa'dah and stayed for some time, gathered information on Khawlaan.
He later returned to San'a and gathered information on Himyar.
His outspokenness and his opposition to the local politics led him to prison.
Released after two years, he left for Rayda for the protection of his tribe, compiling most of his books there and remaining until his death in 945.
His Geography of the Arabian Peninsula (Sifat Jazirat ul-Arab) is by far the most important work on the subject.
Sayf ad-Dawlah, who had begun his career as lord of the city of Wasit in Iraq, has become involved in the struggles of the 'Abbasid caliphate.
He realizes that greater potential lies to the west, in Syria, currently under the dominion of the Ikhshidid dynasty, which rules Egypt.
He captures Aleppo in 946.
Muhammad bin Tughj, founder of the Ikhshidid dynasty of Egypt, had purchased Abu al-Misk Kafur as a slave in 923 and, recognizing the enslaved man's potential, had made him a tutor to his children and a military officer.
Ultimately, al-Misk has gained so much power that he is able to succeeded bin Tughj.
The Fatimid realm has been plunged into crisis by the revolt of Abu Yazid, who has united the Kharijite Berber tribes of the Aurès Mountains of eastern Algeria and overrun Ifriqiya.
Imam Al-Qaim has been able to hold out in Mahdia with the help of the navy for over a year, but dies on May 17, 946 before the revolt can be put down.
He is succeeded by his son Ismail al-Mansur, under whose leadership the Fatimid forces recover their position, first breaking the siege of Sousse and then driving Abū Yazīd's forces out of Kairouan back into the Aurès Mountains.
Al-Mustakfi also gives Ahmad the honorific title of "Mu'izz al-Dawla" ("Glorifier of the State").
Ahmad’s brother 'Ali is given the title of "'Imad al-Dawla" ("Support of the State"); another of Ahmad's brothers, Hasan, who has assumed control of northern Persia, gains the title of "Rukn al-Dawla" ("Pillar of the State").
Despite Al-Mustakfi's apparent acceptance of Buyid authority, Mu'izz al-Dawla fears the Caliph as a creature of the Turks.
In January 946, he breaks into the palace, drags al-Mustakfi from his throne, and drives him through the streets to the jeers of his troops.
The Caliph, having reigned for little more than a year, is blinded with red-hot irons and thrown in jail (where he will die five years later).
Mu'izz al-Dawla installs Al-Muti as caliph.
The city rises in chaos, and the Caliph's palace is looted.
Having thus reduced the Sunni caliphs to puppet status, Ahmad establishes Buyid rule.
Hereafter the brothers are known by their honorific titles of 'Imad ad-Dawlah ('Ali), Rukn ad-Dawlah (Hasan), and Mu'izz ad-Dawlah (Ahmad).
News of this event is received negatively by the Hamdanid amir Nasir al-Dawla, who rules over Mosul and the districts of the eastern Jazira.
Nasir al-Dawla had previously controlled Baghdad in 942 and he still entertains hopes of regaining the city; Mu'izz al-Dawla's takeover of the capital is therefore an unwelcome development for him.
Nasir al-Dawla has reason to be confident that he can defeat Mu'izz al-Dawla if he makes an attempt to capture Baghdad.
His army has been bolstered by the arrival of numerous Turkish soldiers who had fled from Baghdad just before Mu'izz al-Dawla's entrance into the capital, and he is much more familiar with the territory between Mosul and Baghdad than is his rival.
Mu'izz al-Dawla, on the other hand, is on less secure ground; Baghdad is in a sorry state thanks to years of mismanagement and he is hamstrung by its numerous financial and military problems.
Nasir al-Dawla furthermore gains a pretext for war when in Mu'izz al-Dawla deposes and blinds al-Mustakfi and replaces him with the more obedient al-Muti'.
As a result of these factors, Nasir al-Dawla takes a belligerent tone with the Buyids; he withholds the payment of tribute to Baghdad, refuses to recognize al-Muti' as caliph and continues to mint coins in al-Mustakfi's name.
It quickly becomes clear that the two amirs will be unable to work out an agreement with each other.
Mu'izz al-Dawla in February 946 sends an army under the command of Musa Fayadhah and Yanal Kushsh to Ukbara, in preparation for a campaign to conquer Mosul.
The expedition is terminated, however, when Yanal Kusush suddenly attacks Musa and deserts to the Hamdanids.
Nasir al-Dawla responds to this act of aggression by leading his army, which includes a number of Turks, to Samarra the following month.
Mu'izz al-Dawla similarly gathers his forces and departs from Baghdad with the caliph al-Muti' for Ukbara.
While stationed at Samarra, Nasir al-Dawla sends his brother Jubayr to sneak around the Buyid army and head south to Baghdad.
Jubayr is welcomed by the citizens and by Mu'izz al-Dawla's former secretary Abu Ja'far ibn Shirzad, who declares his allegiance to the Hamdanids and administers the affairs of Baghdad on their behalf.
Nasir al-Dawla now decides to head for Baghdad himself.
Leaving his cousin al-Husayn ibn Sa'id in the field to distract Mu'izz al-Dawla, he heads south and reaches western Baghdad on April 15, and though he is forced to destroy his baggage when a number of Dailamites threaten to seize it, he and his forces are able to gain control of the city.
When Mu'izz al-Dawla learns that he has lost Baghdad, he gathers his Dailamite soldiers, who have been busy plundering Tikrit and Samarra, and heads back to the city.
When he arrives, he fins that Nasir al-Dawla has crossed the Tigris and set up camp outside the Shammasiyyah quarter of eastern Baghdad; he therefore digs in on the western side of the city, and the two sides prepare for battle.