Sayf ad-Dawlah, who had begun his career…

Emperor Taizong had by the end of 944 launched an invasion of the Jin.

Although the invasion takes three years and the Liao have faced several setbacks, by the end of 946 Emperor Taizong has secured the surrender of the head of the Later Jin forces and is able to march into Kaifeng unopposed.

Emperor Taizong celebrates his victory with the adoption of the dynastic name "Greater Liao".

King Otto I founds the Bishopric of Havelberg in 946; the diocese will be a suffragan to the Archbishops of Magedeburg.

Muhammad bin Tughj, founder of the Ikhshidid dynasty of Egypt, had purchased Abu al-Misk Kafur as a slave in 923 and, recognizing the enslaved man's potential, had made him a tutor to his children and a military officer.

Ultimately, al-Misk has gained so much power that he is able to succeeded bin Tughj.

Pope Marinus II has extended the appointment of Frederick, Archbishop of Mainz as Papal Vicar and Missus dominicus throughout Germany and Francia.

Marinus later intervened when the Bishop of Capua seized without authorization a church which had been given to the local Benedictine monks.

In fact, throughout his pontificate, Marinus has favored various monasteries, issuing a number of Papal bulls in their favor.Marinus occupied the palace built by Pope John VII atop the Palatine Hill in the ruins of the Domus Gaiana.

He dies in May 946 and was succeeded by Agapetus II.

Agapetus, born into a Roman noble family, of a Roman father (descendant of consul Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius) and a Greek mother, is elected pope on May 10, 946.

The existence of an independent republic of Rome, ruled by Alberic II, (932–954), son of Marozia and the self-styled "prince and senator of the Romans", means that Agapetus is prevented from exercising any temporal or secular power in Rome and the Papal States.

The Fatimid realm has been plunged into crisis by the revolt of Abu Yazid, who has united the Kharijite Berber tribes of the Aurès Mountains of eastern Algeria and overrun Ifriqiya.

Imam Al-Qaim has been able to hold out in Mahdia with the help of the navy for over a year, but dies on May 17, 946 before the revolt can be put down.

He is succeeded by his son Ismail al-Mansur, under whose leadership the Fatimid forces recover their position, first breaking the siege of Sousse and then driving Abū Yazīd's forces out of Kairouan back into the Aurès Mountains.

The Capture and Imprisonment of Louis IV by Hugh the Great (945–946)

Throughout most of his reign, King Louis IV of West Francia struggles for power against Hugh the Great, the most powerful noble in the kingdom. Their conflict reaches a turning point in 945, when Louis is captured during a failed attempt to conquer Normandy, becoming Hugh’s prisoner until his release in 946.

Background: Louis IV’s Conflict with Hugh the Great

• Hugh the Great, Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris, had been the de facto ruler of West Francia, often overshadowing the king.
• Throughout Louis’ reign, the two men clash over control of the kingdom, with Hugh refusing to fully submit to royal authority.
• By the mid-940s, Louis attempts to assert his power more aggressively, leading to a disastrous campaign in Normandy.

The Failed Campaign in Normandy and Louis IV’s Capture (945)

• In 945, Louis launches an expedition into Normandy, hoping to bring the region more directly under his control.
• However, the Normans, still politically unstable after the assassination of William Longsword in 942, resist his authority.
• Louis is betrayed and captured, falling into the hands of Hugh the Great, who takes full advantage of the situation.

Louis IV’s Imprisonment and Release (945–946)

• Louis remains Hugh’s prisoner until 946, during which time Hugh consolidates his own power while the king is effectively sidelined.
• Hugh’s influence increases dramatically, as he now holds the king hostage, reinforcing his control over West Francia.
• In 946, Louis is finally released, likely due to external pressures, including diplomatic intervention from Otto I of Germany and other nobles who do not want Hugh to become too powerful.

Consequences of Louis’ Capture and Imprisonment

1. Hugh the Great Becomes the Dominant Power in France

   • With Louis weakened, Hugh further establishes himself as the real ruler of West Francia, though he never claims the crown.

2. Norman Independence Strengthened

   • Louis’ failed invasion allows the Normans to solidify their autonomy, ensuring that Normandy remains outside royal control.

3. Louis IV’s Authority Severely Undermined

   • After his release, Louis struggles to reassert himself as king, as his reputation is severely damaged by his capture.
   • The continued power struggle between Louis and Hugh persists, further fragmenting West Francia.

Conclusion: A King Held Hostage, A Realm in Crisis

The capture of Louis IV in 945 and his imprisonment by Hugh the Great marks a low point in Carolingian authority. Though eventually released in 946, Louis remains largely powerless, as Hugh continues to dominate West Francia. This event further weakens the monarchy, reinforcing the rise of feudal lords and the declining influence of the Carolingian dynasty.

The course of events in Northumbria while Amlaíb is in Ireland is uncertain.

While Edmund certainly controlled Northumbria after Amlaíb was expelled and Ragnall killed, he may soon after have lost control of the north to a Scandinavian king named Eiríkr, usually identified with Eric Bloodaxe.

If Erik did rule in Northumbria before Edmund's death, it was only for a short time.

After Edmund is killed in 946, he is succeeded by his brother Eadred.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that Eadred "reduced all the land of Northumbria to his control; and the Scots granted him oaths that they would do all that he wanted". (Swanton, Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, pp. 112–113, Mss A & D, s.a. 946, Ms. E, s.a. 948.)

Al-Mustakfi also gives Ahmad the honorific title of "Mu'izz al-Dawla" ("Glorifier of the State").

Ahmad’s brother 'Ali is given the title of "'Imad al-Dawla" ("Support of the State"); another of Ahmad's brothers, Hasan, who has assumed control of northern Persia, gains the title of "Rukn al-Dawla" ("Pillar of the State").

Despite Al-Mustakfi's apparent acceptance of Buyid authority, Mu'izz al-Dawla fears the Caliph as a creature of the Turks.

In January 946, he breaks into the palace, drags al-Mustakfi from his throne, and drives him through the streets to the jeers of his troops.

The Caliph, having reigned for little more than a year, is blinded with red-hot irons and thrown in jail (where he will die five years later).

Mu'izz al-Dawla installs Al-Muti as caliph.

The city rises in chaos, and the Caliph's palace is looted.

Having thus reduced the Sunni caliphs to puppet status, Ahmad establishes Buyid rule.

Hereafter the brothers are known by their honorific titles of 'Imad ad-Dawlah ('Ali), Rukn ad-Dawlah (Hasan), and Mu'izz ad-Dawlah (Ahmad).

News of this event is received negatively by the Hamdanid amir Nasir al-Dawla, who rules over Mosul and the districts of the eastern Jazira.

Nasir al-Dawla had previously controlled Baghdad in 942 and he still entertains hopes of regaining the city; Mu'izz al-Dawla's takeover of the capital is therefore an unwelcome development for him.

Nasir al-Dawla has reason to be confident that he can defeat Mu'izz al-Dawla if he makes an attempt to capture Baghdad.

His army has been bolstered by the arrival of numerous Turkish soldiers who had fled from Baghdad just before Mu'izz al-Dawla's entrance into the capital, and he is much more familiar with the territory between Mosul and Baghdad than is his rival.

Mu'izz al-Dawla, on the other hand, is on less secure ground; Baghdad is in a sorry state thanks to years of mismanagement and he is hamstrung by its numerous financial and military problems.

Nasir al-Dawla furthermore gains a pretext for war when in Mu'izz al-Dawla deposes and blinds al-Mustakfi and replaces him with the more obedient al-Muti'.

As a result of these factors, Nasir al-Dawla takes a belligerent tone with the Buyids; he withholds the payment of tribute to Baghdad, refuses to recognize al-Muti' as caliph and continues to mint coins in al-Mustakfi's name.

It quickly becomes clear that the two amirs will be unable to work out an agreement with each other.

Mu'izz al-Dawla in February 946 sends an army under the command of Musa Fayadhah and Yanal Kushsh to Ukbara, in preparation for a campaign to conquer Mosul.

The expedition is terminated, however, when Yanal Kusush suddenly attacks Musa and deserts to the Hamdanids.

Nasir al-Dawla responds to this act of aggression by leading his army, which includes a number of Turks, to Samarra the following month.

Mu'izz al-Dawla similarly gathers his forces and departs from Baghdad with the caliph al-Muti' for Ukbara.