Knowledge of the opium poppy reaches China in about the late seventh or early eighth century when Arab traders first introduce Opium thebaicum from the Egyptian fields at Thebes.

The Khagans of the Yenisei Kyrgyz claim descent from the Chinese general Li Ling, grandson of the famous Han Dynasty general Li Guang.

Li Ling had been captured by the Xiongnu and defected in the first century BCE, and since the Tang royal Li family also claims descent from Li Guang, the Kyrgyz Khagan is therefore recognized as a member of the Tang Imperial family.

Emperor Zhongzong of Tang had said to them that "Your nation and Ours are of the same ancestral clan (Zong). You are not like other foreigners." (Michael Robert Drompp (2005). Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire: a documentary history. Brill's Inner Asian library. 13. Brill.)

Diplomatic communication between the Khazar Khanate, the Danubian Bulgar Khanate, and Constantinople is so effective that the Bulgar khan, Tervel, is second only to the emperor and becomes the first foreigner in Eastern Roman history to receive the title of Caesar.

The Fino-Ugric Magyars, who will later become known as the Hungarians, had moved in the fourth and fifth centuries CE to the west of the Ural Mountains to the area between the southern Ural Mountains and the Volga River known as Bashkiria (Bashkortostan) and Perm Krai.

Some seven of the Hungarian tribes, who have mingled with and accepted the equestrian culture of various Turkish tribes, move in the early eighth century to the Don River to an area between the Volga, Don and the Seversky Donets rivers.

The Hungarians around the Don River are subordinates of the Khazar khaganate.

Their neighbors are the archaeological Saltov Culture, i.e., Bulgars (Proto-Bulgarians, Onogurs) and the Alans, from whom they soon learn gardening, elements of cattle breeding and of agriculture.

Meanwhile, the descendants of those Hungarians who have stayed in Bashkiria will remain here as late as 1241.

Papal Reconciliation with the Eastern Church

In a rare moment of East-West rapprochement, the papacy and the Eastern Church reestablish formal communication, culminating in Pope Constantine’s historic visit to Constantinople. This visit, one of the few undertaken by a pope to the Byzantine capital, serves to mend relations that had been strained by theological disputes and political tensions between Rome and the Eastern Roman Empire.

By securing dialogue with the Byzantine emperor and the Patriarch of Constantinople, Pope Constantine helps to restore unity between the two Christian traditions, at least temporarily. This event underscores the continuing, if fragile, connection between Western and Eastern Christendom, a relationship that will remain complex as theological and political differences persist in the centuries to come.

East Central Europe (700–711 CE): Saxon Ascendancy, Slavic Consolidation, and Avar Stability

Between 700 and 711 CE, East Central Europe—encompassing Poland, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, and those portions of Germany and Austria lying east of 10°E and north of a line stretching from roughly 48.2°N at 10°E southeastward to the Austro-Slovenian border near 46.7°N, 15.4°E—entered a period marked by the rising prominence of the Saxons, continued consolidation of emerging Slavic principalities, and maintained stability within the Avar Khaganate. Saxon tribes expanded their territorial influence eastward, notably across eastern Germany, becoming significant players in regional geopolitics. Concurrently, Slavic political entities in Bohemia and Moravia further solidified their governance, while Thuringia sustained its autonomy from increasingly powerless Merovingian kings.

Political and Military Developments

Rise of Saxon Influence

• Saxon tribes, previously centered in northern and western Germany, extended their reach eastward, asserting dominance over territories east of the Elbe River. Their expansion significantly impacted regional politics, trade routes, and cultural interactions across eastern Germany and parts of western Poland.

Consolidation of Slavic Principalities

• Emerging Slavic political entities in Bohemia and Moravia continued their transition toward stable, early medieval state structures, strengthening local governance, defenses, and internal unity.

Continued Thuringian Autonomy

• Thuringia, under powerful local dukes, maintained de facto independence from weakened Frankish central authority. Merovingian kings remained incapable of reclaiming effective control, exemplifying the ongoing fragmentation of their royal power.

Stability within the Avar Khaganate

• The Avar Khaganate preserved political stability and territorial integrity within the Carpathian Basin, maintaining diplomatic relations with surrounding polities and carefully balancing interactions with increasingly influential Saxon and Slavic neighbors.

Economic and Technological Developments

Saxon Influence on Regional Trade

• Saxon eastward expansion stimulated regional trade, facilitating greater economic interaction across eastern Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, and parts of Poland. Trade goods included ironwork, agricultural produce, livestock, textiles, and craft products.

Continued Development of Defensive Infrastructure

• Saxons, Slavs, and Avars all continued developing fortified settlements, earthworks, and defensive systems, reflecting increased regional interaction and potential for military conflict.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Saxon Cultural Expansion

• Saxon expansion eastward disseminated distinct Germanic cultural influences into previously Slavic and mixed territories. Saxon artistry, notably in metalworking, jewelry, and weaponry, became regionally influential.

Distinct Slavic Identities in Bohemia and Moravia

• Bohemian and Moravian communities further refined their distinctive regional cultural identities, evident in archaeological finds of pottery, jewelry styles, and settlement patterns.

Persistent Avar Cultural Influence

• The Avar cultural legacy continued prominently within the Carpathian Basin, influencing artistic traditions, especially metalwork, decorative arts, and equestrian equipment, across neighboring communities.

Settlement and Urban Development

Saxon Territorial Expansion and Settlement

• Saxon settlements proliferated eastward, establishing strategic strongholds, agricultural villages, and trading centers across eastern Germany and adjacent regions, notably impacting western Poland and northern Czechia.

Growth of Slavic Political Centers

• Fortified settlements and early urban centers expanded within Bohemia and Moravia, signaling increased political stability, population growth, and economic prosperity.

Stability in Bavarian and Thuringian Settlements

• Thuringian and Bavarian settlements, including significant towns such as Regensburg, remained prosperous and stable, benefiting from peaceful trade and reduced military threats.

Social and Religious Developments

Strengthened Saxon Tribal Hierarchy

• Saxon society featured strong tribal hierarchies, with powerful warrior elites dominating social, military, and economic life, facilitating cohesive expansion into East Central Europe.

Slavic Hierarchical Consolidation

• Slavic communities further centralized authority under increasingly powerful regional leaders, laying foundations for future state structures and organized defense.

Avar Sociopolitical Stability

• Within their core territory, the Avars maintained cohesive sociopolitical structures based around nomadic elite leadership, supported by a stable tribute economy.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era 700–711 CE represented a crucial transition marked by the rise of Saxon political and cultural influence, sustained consolidation among Slavic principalities, ongoing autonomy in Thuringia, and continued Avar stability. These developments significantly shaped the medieval political landscape, establishing enduring territorial patterns, ethnic identities, and economic networks in East Central Europe.

The Beginnings of the Romanesque Period in Architecture

Around 700 CE, the Romanesque period begins to take shape, marking a transition from early medieval construction techniques to more structurally advanced designs. This era is characterized by the development of robust masonry, rounded arches, and the introduction of ribbed vaulting, which enhances both durability and architectural grandeur.

One of the key innovations of this period is the addition of ribs along the groins of groin vaults. This advancement:

• Reduces the need for extensive scaffolding, making construction more efficient,
• Provides additional structural support, allowing for the better distribution of weight, and
• Lays the foundation for later advancements in vaulting techniques, which will reach their full expression in Gothic architecture.

These architectural improvements not only strengthen buildings but also enable the construction of larger and more imposing religious and civic structures, setting the stage for the monumental churches and cathedrals that will define medieval Europe.

The East Roman Empire is engaged in almost constant war with the Arabs in various fronts from 698 to 718.

The defeat at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692 and internal instability have lead to the gradual loss of Armenia and Cilicia.

The Empire generally maintains a defensive stance against the annual Arab raids into Anatolia, despite some successes by Heraclius, brother of Emperor Tiberius III.

Carthage falls in 697: recovered soon after, it is again lost in 698, marking the end of Roman North Africa.

Eastern Southeast Europe (700–711 CE): Defensive Struggles and Diplomatic Realignments

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Stability Under Continued Pressure

Between 700 and 711 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe maintained relative demographic stability despite ongoing military and political pressures. Settlements within the Bulgarian state continued to consolidate, furthering the integration of Slavic and Bulgar populations.

Political and Military Developments

Persistent Arab-Byzantine Conflicts

The East Roman Empire remained embroiled in nearly constant warfare against Muslim Arab forces on multiple fronts from 698 to 718. The defeat at the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692 and ensuing internal instability led to the gradual loss of critical regions, including Armenia and Cilicia. Carthage fell permanently to Arab forces by 698, marking the definitive end of Roman rule in North Africa.

Diplomatic Achievements

Diplomatic relations significantly improved between Constantinople, the Khazar Khanate, and the Danubian Bulgar Khanate, exemplified by Bulgar Khan Tervel becoming the first foreigner to receive the title of Caesar, second only to the Byzantine emperor. This diplomatic realignment substantially reinforced regional alliances.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Adaptation Amid Warfare

Despite persistent military conflict and territorial losses, economic resilience persisted through adaptation and refocusing of resources. The defense and fortification of Anatolia and the Balkans continued, maintaining regional stability and facilitating trade.

Military Innovations and Fortifications

Ongoing advancements in defensive technologies, including fortifications and naval tactics, remained crucial for protecting remaining imperial territories from persistent Arab raids. These improvements secured the empire's remaining territorial core, particularly Anatolia.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Liturgical and Artistic Innovations

Cultural and religious practices evolved significantly, highlighted by the transition from “kontakia” hymns to the “kanon” form around 700. Andrew of Crete emerged as a prominent figure in this new liturgical tradition, reflecting evolving religious and cultural expressions.

Intellectual and Scholarly Continuity

Scholarly and educational institutions persisted in their critical roles of preserving and developing classical, theological, and philosophical traditions, ensuring cultural resilience and continuity despite ongoing turmoil.

Social and Religious Developments

East-West Ecclesiastical Reconciliation

A rare moment of rapprochement occurred between the papacy and the Eastern Church, culminating in Pope Constantine’s historic visit to Constantinople. This event temporarily restored unity between the Latin-rite Western and Greek-rite Eastern Christian traditions, highlighting ongoing, if fragile, inter-church relationships.

Continued Strength of Eastern Orthodoxy

Eastern Orthodox Christianity further entrenched itself as the region's spiritual and social backbone, influencing societal norms and reinforcing regional identity amidst continuing political and military pressures.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The era from 700 to 711 CE witnessed critical military challenges, significant territorial losses, and noteworthy diplomatic and religious developments. These elements substantially influenced Eastern Southeast Europe's geopolitical landscape, reinforcing the region's cultural identity and shaping the complex dynamics between Eastern and Western Christian traditions.

The form of Greek hymns called “kontakia’ gives way in about 700 to “kanons,” long poems built on nine odes and having a mystical association with the nine scriptural canticles.

By custom, the second ode is omitted except during Lent because of its serious nature, and the use of eight odes eventually becomes typical.

Andrew of Crete, who flourishes around this time, is one of the early renowned writers of the “kanon” form.