Frederick I (r. 1152-90), the second of…

Frederick I (r. 1152-90), the second of the Hohenstaufen rulers, also known as Frederick Barbarossa because of his red beard, struggles throughout his reign to restore the power and prestige of the German monarchy, but he has little success.

Because the German dukes have grown stronger both during and after the Investiture Contest and because royal access to the resources of the church in Germany is much reduced, Frederick is forced to go to Italy to find the finances needed to restore the king's power in Germany.

He is soon crowned emperor in Italy, but decades of warfare on the peninsula yield scant results.

The papacy and the prosperous city-states of northern Italy are traditional enemies, but the fear of imperial domination causes them to join ranks to fight Frederick.

Under the skilled leadership of Pope Alexander III, the alliance suffers many defeats but ultimately is able to deny the emperor a complete victory in Italy.

Frederick returns to Germany old and embittered.

He has vanquished one notable opponent and member of the Welf family, Saxony's Henry the Lion, but his hopes of restoring the power and prestige of his family and the monarchy seem unlikely to be met by the end of his life.