Optical lenses begin to evolve from the…

Daniel has been credited with founding the first Moscow monasteries, dedicated to the Lord's Epiphany and to Saint Daniel.

On the right bank of the Moskva River, at a distance of five miles from the Kremlin not later than in 1282, he had founded the first monastery with the wooden church of St. Daniel-Stylite, today the Danilov Monastery.

Having become a monk, diet the age of forty-two on the 17th (4th in old style) of March in 1303.

Yury, the oldest son of Daniel, succeeds him as prince of Moscow.

His first important action is to defend Pereslavl-Zalessky against Vladimir-Suzdal’s Grand Duke Andrey III Alexandrovich (Andrey of Gorodets).

King Albert I of Germany had finally crushed the Boniface-backed revolt in the Rhineland in 1302.

Although a hard, stern man, Albert has a keen sense of justice when his own interests are not involved, and few of the German kings possess so practical an intelligence.

He has encouraged the cities, and not content with issuing proclamations against private war, has formed alliances with the princes in order to enforce his decrees.

The serfs, whose wrongs seldom attract notice in an age indifferent to the claims of common humanity, find a friend in this severe monarch, and he protects even the despised and persecuted Jews.

Seeking to play an important part in European affairs, Albert had seemed at first inclined to press a quarrel with France over the Burgundian frontier, but the refusal of Pope Boniface to recognize his election had led him to change his policy.

After failing in his attempt to seize Holland and Zeeland, as vacant fiefs of the Empire, on the death of Count John I in 1299, he had made a treaty with Philip IV of France, by which his son Rudolph was to marry Blanche, a daughter of the French king.

He had afterwards become estranged from Philip, but in 1303, Boniface recognizes him as German king and future emperor; in return, Albert recognizes the authority of the pope alone to bestow the imperial crown, and promises that none of his sons should be elected German king without papal consent.

Albert secures papal confirmation of his 1298 election in 1303, in return for an oath of obedience to the papal office.

Recognizing the authority of the pope alone to bestow the imperial crown, he promises that none of his sons should be elected German king without papal consent.

The Bulgarian tsar now turns to Constantinople, which had inspired the Tatar invasions and has managed to conquer many Bulgarian fortresses in Thrace.

As a consequence of his victories, Theodore Svetoslav feels secure enough to move on to the offensive by 1303 and capture the fortresses of northeastern Thrace, including Mesembria (Nesebăr), …

…Anchialos (Pomorie), and …

…Sozopolis (Sozopol).

Pope Boniface VIII confirms Charles' claim to Hungary on May 31, 1303 and his maternal uncle, King Albert I of Germany, also provides him military assistance.

Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos, who has reduced the empire’s armed forces as an economy measure, has few options other than the hiring of the sixty-five hundred-man strong Catalan Company, commanded by Roger de Flor, to fight the Ottoman Turks encroaching on Constantinople.

Flor marries the niece of Andronikos, daughter of the Tsar of Bulgaria, not long after his arrival in the city, and is named grand duke (head of the fleet).

Chittor is famous in the annals of the Mewar Dynasty as its first capital (prior to this, the Guhilots, forerunners of the Mewar Dynasty, ruled from Idar, Bhomat, and Nagda), and renowned in India's long struggle for freedom.

By tradition, it is to remain the Mewar capital for eight hundred and thirty-four years.

With only brief interruptions, the fort will always remain in possession of the Sisodias of the Guhilot (or Gehlot/Guhila) clan of Rajputs.

One such interruption comes at the hands of Alauddin Khilji, who supposedly had been enamored by the beauty of Mewar’s Rani Padmini, of which he had only heard, and in 1303 mounts a relentless siege of the massive Chittorgarh Fort.

The defenders’ situation becomes hopeless, and the queen, preferring death to abduction and dishonor, commits jauhar (an act of self immolation by leaping into a large fire) along with all the other ladies of the fort.

After casting their wives on the funeral pyres, all the men leave the fort in saffron robes to fight the enemy to the death.

Elderly people assume the responsibility to raise the surviving children of the slain.

The glory and wealth of the Kakatiya kingdom having attracted the attention of Khilji, the first foray by the Delhi Sultanate into the Telugu lands is made in 1303 by the Sultan’s armies led by Malik Fakruddin.

The valiant resistance of the Kakatiya army in the battle at Upparapalli (Karimnagar District) proves disastrous for the expedition.