The Taruma and Sunda kingdoms of western Java had appeared in the fourth and seventh centuries respectively.

However, the first major principality is the Indianized Medang Kingdom, founded in central Java in the mid-eighth century.

Medang's religion centers on the Hindu god Shiva, and the kingdom produces some of Java's earliest Hindu temples on the Dieng Plateau.

Some of Japan's literary monuments are written during the Nara period including the Kojiki and Nihongi, the first national histories compiled in 712 and 720 respectively; the Man'yoshu (Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves), an anthology of poems; and the Kaifuso (Fond Recollections of Poetry), an anthology written in Chinese by Japanese emperors and princes.

Another major cultural development of the era is the permanent establishment of Buddhism in Japan.

Buddhism had been introduced in the sixth century, but had a mixed reception until the Nara period, when it was heartily embraced by the Emperor Shomu.

Shomu and his Fujiwara consort are fervent Buddhists and actively promote the spread of Buddhism, making it the "guardian of the state" and strengthening Japanese institutions through still further Chinese acculturation.

During Shomu's reign, the Todaiji (Great East Temple) is built and within it is placed the Buddha Dainichi (Great Sun Buddha), a sixteen-meter-high, gilt-bronze statue.

This Buddha is identified with the Sun Goddess, and from this point on a gradual syncretism of Buddism and Shinto ensues.

Shomu declares himself the "Servant of the Three Treasures" of Buddhism: the Buddha, the law or teachings of Buddhism, and the Buddhist community.

Silla in particular, however, develops a flourishing indigenous civilization that is among the most advanced in the world.

Its capital at Gyeongju is renowned as the "city of gold," where the aristocracy pursued a high culture and extravagant pleasures.

Tang historians write that elite officials possesses thousands of slaves, with like numbers of horses, cattle, and pigs.

The wives of such senior officials wear gold tiaras and earrings of delicate and intricate filigree.

Silla scholars study the Confucian and Buddhist classics, advance state administration, and develop sophisticated methods for astronomy and calendrical science.

The Dharani Sutra, recovered in Gyeongju, dates as far back as 751 and is the oldest example of woodblock printing yet found in the world.

"Pure Land" Buddhism unites the mass of common people, who can become adherents through the repetition of simple chants.

The crowning glories of this "city of gold" are the Pulguksa Temple in Kyongju and the nearby Sokkuram Grotto, both built around 750 and home to some of the finest Buddhist sculpture in the world.

The grotto, atop a coastal bluff near Gyeongju, boasts a great stone Sakyamuni Buddha in the cave's inner sanctum, poised such that the rising sun over the sea strikes him in the middle of the forehead.

Economic and administrative activity increases during the Nara period.

Roads link Nara to provincial capitals and taxes are collected more efficiently and routinely.

Coins are minted, if not widely used.

Outside the Nara area, however, there is little commercial activity, and in the provinces the old Shotoku land reform systems decline.

By the mid-eighth century, shoen (landed estates), one of the most important economic institutions in medieval Japan, begin to rise as a result of the search for a more manageable form of landholding.

Local administration gradually becomes more self-sufficient while the breakdown of the old land distribution system and the rise of taxes lead to the loss or abandonment of land by many people who become the ''wave people," or ronin.

Some of these formerly "public people" are privately employed by large landholders, and "public lands" increasingly revert to the shoen.

The An Lushan Rebellion, a devastating rebellion against the Tang Dynasty of China, overtly begins on December 16, 755, when general An Lushan declares himself emperor in Northern China, thus establishing a rival Yan Dynasty.

The Khazar empire has reached the peak of its power by the second half of the eighth century, extending along the northern shore of the Black Sea from the lower Volga and the Caspian Sea in the east to the Dnieper River in the west.

The main source of revenue for the empire stems from commerce and particularly from Khazar control of the east-west trade route that links the Far East with Constantinople and the north-south route linking the Arab empire with northern Slavic lands.

The Khazars control and exact tribute from the Alani and other northern Caucasian peoples dwelling between the mountains and the Kuban River; from the Magyars (proto-Hungarians) inhabiting the area around the Donets River; from the Goths; and from the Greek colonies in the Crimea.

The Volga Bulgars and numerous Slavic tribes also recognize the Khazars as their overlords.

Eastern Southeast Europe (748–759 CE): Military Campaigns and Strategic Gains

Settlement and Migration Patterns

Strategic Population Relocation

From 748 to 759 CE, Eastern Southeast Europe saw the strategic relocation of populations, notably prisoners captured in victorious campaigns in northern Syria being settled in Thrace. These relocations were intended to reinforce military preparedness and territorial stability against regional threats, particularly the Bulgars.

Political and Military Developments

Constantine V’s Military Leadership

Emperor Constantine V spent much of his life, both before and after his accession as sole ruler, engaged in largely successful military campaigns. His reign featured consistent confrontations with Arab forces and Bulgar tribes, which posed significant threats to imperial security. Early in his reign, Constantine capitalized on internal Muslim conflicts, particularly the struggle between the 'Abbasids and Umayyads for control of the caliphate, to secure notable victories.

Victories in Northern Syria

Constantine V achieved significant military successes in northern Syria, weakening Arab influence and capturing numerous prisoners. These prisoners were strategically relocated to Thrace, strengthening the empire's frontier defenses and enhancing preparations for subsequent military engagements against the Bulgarians.

Economic and Technological Developments

Economic Stability through Military Success

Economic stability was reinforced by Constantine V's successful military campaigns, which secured critical trade routes and territories. This military effectiveness enhanced overall regional economic resilience and prosperity.

Strengthened Defensive Infrastructure

Constantine V continued to prioritize and enhance defensive infrastructures, particularly in frontier regions like Thrace, preparing for potential conflicts and ensuring sustained regional security.

Cultural and Artistic Developments

Continued Cultural Flourishing

Cultural and artistic activities continued to thrive despite ongoing military engagements. The stability achieved through military victories allowed for continued investment in religious and cultural institutions, supporting sustained regional identity and resilience.

Intellectual Preservation

Intellectual and scholarly communities maintained their efforts in preserving classical and theological knowledge, contributing to ongoing educational and cultural resilience during this period of military focus.

Social and Religious Developments

Reinforced Eastern Orthodox Identity

Eastern Orthodoxy continued to deepen its influence within society, shaping communal cohesion and regional identity. The ongoing strength and presence of religious institutions provided essential societal stability amidst frequent military campaigns.

Ongoing Iconoclast Controversy

Despite Constantine V’s military successes, religious tensions over Iconoclasm persisted, especially within monastic circles. The ongoing theological debates significantly influenced the social dynamics and religious discourse of the era.

Long-Term Consequences and Historical Significance

The period from 748 to 759 CE was characterized by Emperor Constantine V’s strategic military leadership and territorial consolidation. His successful campaigns against external threats, combined with strategic population movements, significantly reinforced imperial defenses and stability, shaping the region's future political and military trajectory.

The Middle East: 748–759 CE

The Abbasid Revolution and the Fall of the Umayyads

The Rise of the Abbasids

In 747 CE, Abu Muslim, a charismatic leader from eastern Persia, marshals a powerful army against the Umayyad Caliphate. By 748 CE, his forces decisively occupy Iraq, setting the stage for a fundamental shift in the political landscape of the Islamic world.

Establishment of the Abbasid Dynasty

In 750 CE, the Umayyad dynasty dramatically collapses, replaced by the newly ascendant Abbasids, who trace their lineage to Abbas, an uncle of the Prophet Muhammad. Abu al-Abbas al-Saffah becomes the first Abbasid caliph, establishing his capital initially in Kufa, and soon thereafter shifting administrative authority toward the newly founded city of Baghdad, positioned strategically along vital trade routes.

Political Continuity Amidst Change

Although the Abbasids come to power by promising a new era of justice, piety, and egalitarian governance—earning the label "the blessed dynasty"—their administration in practice mirrors many policies of their predecessors. They adopt Umayyad methods of governance, taxation, and military organization, and despite their revolutionary rhetoric, the social and political hierarchies remain largely intact.

Centralization in Baghdad

Under Abbasid rule, the administrative center decisively shifts from Damascus to Baghdad, soon becoming one of the most important cities in the world, a renowned center of culture, learning, and commerce. The choice of Baghdad symbolizes the Abbasid desire to distance themselves from the Syrian-dominated politics of the Umayyads, emphasizing Persian and Iraqi influence instead.

Cultural and Religious Developments

The early Abbasid period witnesses significant cultural flourishing. The translation movement, initiated by the Abbasids, involves the systematic translation of Greek, Persian, and Indian works into Arabic, laying the groundwork for the Islamic Golden Age. Yet, tensions persist, particularly with the Shia, who initially supported the Abbasids but soon find themselves marginalized under Sunni-dominated rule.

By 759 CE, the Abbasid Dynasty has firmly consolidated its control, marking a decisive new chapter in Islamic history, even as echoes of Umayyad rule linger within the structure and ethos of the new regime.

Abu Muslim's army attacks the Umayyads and occupies Iraq in 747.

Abd al Abbas (not a Shia) is established in Baghdad as the first caliph of the Abbasid Dynasty in 750.

The Abbasids, whose line is called "the blessed dynasty" by it supporters, present themselves to the people as divine-right rulers who will initiate a new era of justice and prosperity.

Their political policies are, however, remarkably similar to those of the Umayyads.

Bhaskara Ravivarman II, a ruler of the Chera dynasty, grants the Jewish leader Joseph Rabban the rank of prince over the Jews of Cochin, giving him the rulership and tax revenue of a pocket principality in Anjuvannam near Cranganore, and rights to seventy-two "free houses".

The Hindu king gives permission in perpetuity (or, in the more poetic expression of those days, "as long as the world and moon exist") for Jews to live freely, build synagogues, and own property "without conditions attached".