The Middle East: 1804–1815 CE

Expansion and Confrontation of the Saudi-Wahhabi State

Under the leadership of Saud ibn Abdul Aziz ibn Muhammad ibn Saud, the Saudi-Wahhabi state continues its territorial and ideological expansion. In 1805, Saudi forces successfully complete their conquest of the Hijaz, firmly controlling the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, significantly elevating their prestige across the Muslim world. The enforcement of strict Wahhabi practices provokes widespread resistance and hostility, especially among traditional Ottoman authorities. This tension ultimately escalates into a direct confrontation, with the Ottomans urging Muhammad Ali Pasha, the ambitious governor of Egypt, to launch a campaign aimed at reclaiming Hijaz from Wahhabi control.

Muhammad Ali's forces begin their decisive military campaign against the Saudis in 1811, marking the start of the Ottoman-Saudi War, which is intended to restore Ottoman prestige and authority across the Arabian Peninsula.

Qajar Dynasty: External Pressures and Internal Challenges

In Persia, Fath-Ali Shah Qajar (1797–1834) faces mounting pressures from both external rivals and internal dissent. Continuous conflict with Russia results in substantial territorial losses after the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, where Persia cedes significant territories in the Caucasus, including Georgia, to Russian control. Georgia had been gradually annexed by Russia starting in 1801, with eastern regions incorporated in 1801 and western areas in 1804. These losses deeply affect Persian morale and economic strength. Domestically, Fath-Ali Shah strives to maintain central authority amid tribal dissent and regional uprisings, significantly challenging his governance and necessitating careful political maneuvering.

British Influence and Maritime Rivalries in Oman

Following Sultan bin Ahmad al-Busaidi's death in 1804, Oman experiences significant political fragmentation and family disputes over succession. His successor, Said bin Sultan al-Busaidi, initially co-rules with his brother Salim but becomes sole ruler after assassinating their usurper cousin, Badr, in 1806. Said bin Sultan consolidates his authority in Muscat, drawing intensified British interest in Oman's strategic maritime routes. This foreign involvement strengthens Oman's international trade but also brings increased tensions and maritime rivalries, particularly against the aggressive Qawasim pirates of Ra's al-Khaimah and ash-Shariqah, leading to multiple British punitive expeditions. In 1798, Oman had already entered a treaty with the British East India Company to counter threats from the Wahhabi-Saudi alliance.

Escalating Tribal Conflicts and Economic Shifts in the Persian Gulf

In Qatar and the broader Gulf region, tribal conflicts escalate, reshaping political alignments and local economies. The Al Khalifa solidify their control over Bahrain, significantly boosting their economic prospects at the expense of their former base in Az Zubarah, which continues its decline. Meanwhile, Rahman ibn Jabir Al Jalahma and the Al Jalahma tribe intensify maritime raids from Al Khuwayr, severely disrupting regional trade and earning Sheikh Jabir notoriety as a leading pirate.

The Al Thani clan consolidates its influence in Qatar, further adopting Wahhabi ideals to resist rival factions, especially the non-Wahhabi Al Khalifa. The Al Thani’s Wahhabi affiliations influence their political strategies and alliances.

The establishment of Abu Dhabi by the Al bu Falah continues to strengthen as a strategic center, aligning closely with Oman against mutual adversaries like the Qawasim pirates. Abu Dhabi grows in prominence as a commercial hub and a crucial center for regional maritime security.

Ottoman Decline and Rise of Muhammad Ali in Egypt

The weakening Ottoman Empire sees significant territorial and political erosion. The ambitious Albanian governor of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha, becomes increasingly autonomous, responding assertively to the Ottoman call to curb Wahhabi expansion in the Arabian Peninsula. His assertive policies significantly reshape Egyptian autonomy and Ottoman relations.

Legacy of the Era

The period from 1804 to 1815 witnesses significant geopolitical shifts, marked by intensified Saudi-Ottoman confrontations, Persian territorial losses, and increased British maritime intervention. These developments solidify regional power dynamics, notably through the growing autonomy of Muhammad Ali in Egypt, the sustained influence of British maritime policies, and increased tribal fragmentation and rivalry in the Persian Gulf, setting enduring precedents for future regional interactions and conflicts.