As a consequence, the landed Muslim upper…

As a consequence, the landed Muslim upper classes in the north Indian heartland retreat into cultural and political isolation, while fellow Muslims in the Punjab are rewarded for assisting the British.

The former fail to reemerge economically and produce no large group comparable to the upwardly mobile British-educated Hindu middle class.

They do not revise the doctrines of Islam to meet the challenges posed by alien rule, Christian missionaries, and revivalist Hindu sects, such as the Arya Samaj, attempting reconversion to Hinduism.

The former Muslim rulers of India are in danger of becoming a permanent noncompetitive class in the British Raj at the very time the forces of Indian nationalism are gathering strength.